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When adolescence are asked to describe who they are they take their own and other's views into account. They have a broader view of themselves which increases the understanding of who they are. They look at themselves from a psychological perspective, viewing traits not as concrete entities but as abstractions.

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Self Concept

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-Girl's self-esteem is lower and more vulnerable than boy's. -Girls tend to be more concerned about physical appearance and social success. -Boys are also concerned about those things but their attitudes are usually more casual. -Societal messages suggest that if girls do well academically, they jeopardize their social skills. -Boys face difficulties such as not making a sports team or rejection from a girl they wanted to date. They feel miserable about the defeat but also incompetent since they do not measure up to the stereotype of being confident, tough, and fearless all the time.

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Self Esteem (Gender)

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-Race and ethnicity's impact on self-esteem has lessened since prejudicial treatment of minorities -In the past african americans and hispanics had a lower self-esteem than whites but now there is not much difference. -Stronger sense of racial identity is related to a higher level of self-esteem in african americans and hispanics. -Teens in general focus their preferences and priorities on those aspects of their lives at which they excel.

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Self Esteem (Race)

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-African American and Hispanic males had the highest levels of self-esteem -Asian and Native American females had the lowest levels

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Self Esteem (Ethgender)

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-Higher SES=higher self-esteem -Lower SES=lower self-esteem

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Self-Esteeem (SES)

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According to him, all adolescents undergo some degree of psychological turmoil due to the roles presented.

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Identity: Erikson

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-The period during which teenagers seek to determine what is unique and distinctive about themselves. -Seek to understand who they are by narrowing and making choices about their personal, occupational, sexual, and political commitments. -Success gives a proper psychological foundation for the future. Failure can either fixate on resistance, or on conformity. -The self may become diffused (more open to suggestion) -Rely on peers and rely on relationships.

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Identity-versus-identity confusion stage

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-Forming identity poses an issue because individuals have to make choices on what path to follow (Tend to rely on friends and peers, but not on adults) -Males and females move through the identity-versus-identity confusion period differently. Males are more likely to proceed through the social development stage in the correct order, developing a stage of identity before committing to an intimate relationship with another person. Females reverse the order, seeking intimate relationships and then defining their identities through these relationships.

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Pressures (Erikson)

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Period during which adolescents take time off from the upcoming responsibilities of adulthood and explore various roles and possibilities. -College -Women do not have enough time to do this.

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Psychological Moratorium

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-Uses male identity development as the standard against which to compare female identity. -His view is based on male-oriented concepts of individuality and competitiveness. -Carol Gilligan suggested that woman develop identity through the establishment of relationship. In this view, a key component of a woman's identity is the building of caring networks between herself and others.

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Criticism of Erikson's theory

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Suggests that identity can be seen in terms of which of 2 characteristics--crisis or commitment-- is present or absent.

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Identity: James Marcia

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Psychological investment in a course of action or an ideology

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Commitment

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Period of identity development in which an adolescent consciously chooses between various alternatives and make decisions.

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Crisis

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The status of adolescents who commit to a particular identity following a period of crisis during which they consider various alternatives. (Crisis + commitment) -Teens who have reached this identity status tend to be the most psychologically healthy, higher in achievement motivation and moral reasoning than other adolescents.

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Identity Achievement

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The status of adolescents who prematurely commit to an identity without adequately exploring alternatives. (Commitment + No crisis) -Son who takes over family business because it is expected of him. -Daughter who decides to be a physician because her mom is one. -These adolescents are not necessarily unhappy, they tend to have what can be called "rigid strength": Happy and self-satisfied, they also have a high need for social approval and tend to be authoritarian.

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Identity Foreclosure

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The status of adolescents who may have explored various identity alternatives to some degree, but have not yet committed themselves. (Crisis + No commitment) -These adolescents show relatively high anxiety and experience psychological conflict. They are often lively and appealing, seeking intimacy with others. Typically settle on an identity, but only after something of a struggle.

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Identity Moratorium

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The status of adolescents who consider various identity alternatives, but never commit to one or never even consider identity options in any conscious way. (No commitment + No crisis) -Tend to be flighty, shifting from one thing to the next. While they seem carefree, their lack of commitment impairs their ability to form close relationships; socially withdrawn.

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Identity Diffusion

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Organized set of beliefs and dogma (The Bible)

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Religion

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Sense of attachment to some higher power (God, Allah, Buddah, Vishnu, etc...)

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Spirituality

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According to him, our understanding and practice of faith and spirituality proceeds through a series of stages that extend through the lifetime. -Childhood: individuals hold a fairly literal view of God and biblical figures. -Adolescence: View of spirituality becomes more abstract -Individuative-reflective stage: they understand that their views are one of many, and that multiple views of God are possible. -Conjunctive Stage: individuals develop a broad, inclusive view of religion and all humanity.

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James Fowler

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This view holds that individual cultural identities should be assimilated into a unified culture in the U.S.

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Cultural Assimilation Model

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Suggests that U.S. society is made up of diverse, coequal cultural groups that should preserve their individual cultural features.

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Pluralistic Society Model

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The sense of membership in a racial or ethnic group and the feelings that are associated with that membership.

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Racial and Ethnic Identity

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Suggests that an individual can live as a member of 2 cultures, with 2 cultural identities, without having to choose one over the other.

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Bicultural Identity

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-More than a quarter of adolescents feel sad or hopeless for 2 or more weeks in a row that they stop doing their normal activities. -Almost 2/3 say they have felt these feelings at one time or another. -Only 3% feel major depression (full blown psychological disorder in which depression is serve and lingers for long periods)

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Adolescent Depression

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-Adolescent girls experience depression more than boys. -African Americans experience depression more than whites. -Native Americans also have higher rates of depression.

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Gender, ethnic, and race differences in depression

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-Biological Factors: some seem to be genetically predisposed to experience depression. -Adolescents who experience a death of a loved one or one who grows up with an alcoholic or depressed parent. -Higher in girls because of the conflicting demands of the traditional female gender role. (Doing well in school, being popular) -Girls react to stress by turning inward, experiencing helplessness and hopelessness; Boys react impassively or aggressively or turn to drugs and alcohol.

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Influences of depression

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-Rates have tripled in last 30 yrs -3rd leading cause of death in 15-24 age range. -Boys complete suicide more than girls, but girls attempt suicide more than boys.

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Adolescent Suicide

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Stress, depression, social inhibition, perfectionism, drugs, easy availability of guns

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Reasons of committing suicide

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One suicide causes others to commit suicide

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Cluster Suicides

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Direct or indirect talk about suicide, school difficulties, making arrangements as if preparing for a long trip, writing a will, loss of appetite or excessive eating, general depression, dramatic changes in behavior, preoccupation with death in music, art, or literature.

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Warning signs of suicide

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Interdependence and a sense of control over one's life -Main tug-of-war that adolescents and parents engage -Common cause of frustration -Males receive more than females -Grows gradually -At the start of adolescence parents hold most power and influence over the relationship (asymmetrical); By the end of adolescence power and influence have become balanced, parents and children end up in a more symmetrical relationship.

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Autonomy

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-In western cultures, adolescents seek out autonomy at a consistently earlier age. -In eastern culture they promote the ideal of the group, and so adolescent's desire of autonomy is less pronounced. (Feel greater obligation to family, show more respect, whites consistently seek autonomy at earlier dates, males are given more autonomy than females)

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Culture and Autonomy

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A divide between parent and adolescents in attitudes, values, aspirations, and world views. -Influenced by media -Most ideologies are shared by parents and adolescents; most get along. -Conflicts: personal taste, sooner attempts at autonomy, will yield if adolescents demonstrate they are capable of trust.

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Generation Gap

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-As adolescence continues, adolescents demonstrate an increased desire to communicate with their peers. -Evidence best by the presence of cellphones and social media -Peer relationships are most important in adolescence.

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Relationships with peers

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Peers provide each other with the opportunity to compare and evaluate opinions, abilities, and even physical changes. -Parents are unable to provide this

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Social Comparison

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Groups of people with whom one compares oneself -norms: or standards, against which adolescents can judge their abilities and social success.

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Reference Groups

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Groups of 2-12 people whose members have frequent social interactions with one another.

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Cliques

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Larger groups than cliques, composed of individuals who share particular characteristics but who may not interact with one another.

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Crowds

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Sex segregation in which boys interact primarily with boys and girls primarily with girls.

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Sex Cleavage

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-Sex cleavage changes as members of both sex enter puberty. -Adolescents begin to attend boy-girl dances or parties, although mostly the boys will spend time with boys, and the girls with girls. -Cliques and crowds undergo another transition at the end of adolescence: they become less influential and may dissolve as a result of the increased pairing off that occurs. -Minority may actively seek support from others who share their minority status.

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Gender and Race relationships with peers

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Children who are liked by some peers and disliked by others.

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Controversial Adolescents

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Children who are actively disliked and whose peers may react to them in an obviously negative manner.

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Rejected Adolescents

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Children who receive relatively little attention from their peers in the form of either positive or negative interactions.

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Neglected Adolescents

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-Those who are classified as this are more involved in extracurricular activities, disclose more about themselves, are less lonely, and have more close friends.

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Popularity

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The influence of one's peers to conform to the behavior and attitudes. -usually applies in social matters: Adolescents more times than not turn to given experts in particular fields.

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Peer pressure

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-Disproportionately involved in violent and property crimes -Possibility of under socialized delinquents and socialized delinquents

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Delinquency

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Adolescents who are raised with little discipline or with harsh, uncaring parental supervision. -These children have not been socialized appropriately by their parents and were not taught standards of conduct to regulate their own behavior. -Begin criminal activity at an early age -Tend to be relatively aggressive and violent early in life, characteristics that lead to rejection by peers and academic failure.

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Undersocialized Delinquents

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Adolescent delinquents who know and subscribe to the norms of society and who are fairly normal psychologically. -highly influenced by peers, and their delinquency often occurs in groups. -parents of these supervise their children's behavior less closely than other parents. -Involved in petty crimes (shoplifting), but they do not continue lawbreaking into adulthood.

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Socialized Delinquents

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-Can be seen as product of cultural tides -Initially seen as means to select a mate for future marriage -Provides entertainment and/or prestige -Not successful at developing intimacy -True intimacy is more common in later adolescence -For homosexuals: may "cover" if blatant prejudice is present. -Parents may try to control children's dating behavior in an effort to preserve their culture's traditional values or ensure that their child dates within his or her racial or ethnic groups.

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Dating

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-Among the central concerns of adolescents. -Age 15: 80% of boys and 20% of girls reported the act -May produce feelings of shame and guilt, but generally considered a healthy practice (encouraged in Denmark)

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Sexual Relationships

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Sexual self-stimulation -75% of married men and 68% of married women report masturbating 10-24 times a year. -In the 19th century, masturbation supposedly caused "dyspepsia, headache, epilepsy, spasm of the heart, and sudden death" -Treated by carbolic acid (female) and covering them in a cage (male) -Original source of kellogg corn flakes (certain grains would be less likely to provoke sexual excitation) -Today, experts on sexual behavior view it as normal, healthy, and harmless activity.

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Masturbation

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-Average age of first intercourse has decreased consistently over the past 50 years (80% of adolescence have intercourse before 20) -Double standard; premarital sex is considered preferable for males but not female

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Sexual Intercourse

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-Many teens experiment in homosexuality (20-25% of males, 10% of females) -Kinsey: Viewed sexuality not as "either/or" but as a continuum -Gender identity: The gender one psychologically believes they are. -What determines sexual orientation? Biological and/or genetic; most people do not have a choice in their sexual orientation

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Sexual Orientation

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-Certainly not what adolescents want, but tens of thousands of adolescents give birth -Has decreased in the last 2 decades -Pregnancy rate of teens is 34.3 births per 1,000 -Raised Awareness of risks of unprotected sex -Increased use of condoms and contraception -Substitutes for intercourse. (oral sex) -Use of intercourse has declined (virginity pledge) -Imposes considerable strain

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Teenage Pregnancy

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-The 20s, typically, is when we encounter our physical peaks. (20-25) -Brain continues to mature, reaching its maximum weight and size in the early 20s (23) -Pruning is still ongoing -Eyes encounter minor elastic change (Change isn't noticeable until 40-44) -Hearing reaches its peak (men have more difficulty hearing)

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Physical Development

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The natural physical decline brought about by aging -Not at all obvious until later in life, despite it already starting in the early 20s.

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Senescence

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-Not everyone reaches their physical potential: Exercise and Diet are mandatory -Less than 10% of Americans engage in regular exercise to keep them in good physical shape. -Less than a quarter engage in moderate exercise -More likely an upper-and-middle class phenomenon -Need 30 minutes of moderate exercise at least 5 days a week. Benefits: cardiovascular fitness, lung capacity, stronger muscles, flexible body, immune system, increased longevity, range of movement, cure for depression

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Requirement of Exercise

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-In spite of the lack of exercise, health risks in general are relatively slight during early adulthood -Higher risk of death due to automobiles -35 is a grim milestone in early adulthood (illness overtakes accidents as the leading COD at this point) -Lifestyle Choices can also cause secondary aging (physical declines brought about by environmental factors or behavioral choices; too much alcohol, cigarettes, or STDs) -Men, African Americans, and people that have a lot of stress are more likely to look older than they are.

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Aging and health

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-Good nutrition is foods that are low in fat: vegetables, fruits, whole-grain foods, fish, poultry, lean meats, and low-fat dairy products. -Increase amount of complex carbohydrates and fiber -Calcium (milk) to prevent osteoporosis -Reduce salt intake -Overconsumption of calories isn't a problem for adolescents but it is for adults.

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Nutrition

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Body weight that is 20% or more above the average weight for a person of a given height. -More people become obese the older they get -A third of all adults are obese, a percentage that has tripled since 1960. -Obesity is particularly prevalent in the U.S. The world average weight for adults is 137 pounds; in the U.S. the average is 180 -Disabilities (condition that substantially limits a major life activity) -High risk of employment -Risk of prejudice and discrimination

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Obesity

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The physical and emotional response to events that threaten or challenge us

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Stress

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The study of the relationship among the brain, the immune system

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Psychoneuroimmunology (PNI)

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Sudden, one time events

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Acute Stressors

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Long-term, continuing events

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Chronic Stressors

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All people move through a series of stages when coping with stress -Primary Appraisal -Secondary Appraisal

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The Lazarus and Folkman model of stress

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The assessment of an event to determine whether its implications are positive, negative, or neutral

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Primary Appraisal

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The assessment of whether one's coping abilities and resources are adequate to overcome the harm, threat, or challenge posed by the potential stressor.

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Secondary Appraisal

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Medical problems caused by the interaction of psychological, emotional, and physical difficulties. (ulcers, asthma, arthritis, and high blood pressure)

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Psychosomatic Disorders

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The effort to control, reduce, or learn to tolerate the threats that lead to stress.

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Coping

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Attempt to manage a stressful problem or situation by directly changing the situation to make it less stressful. -A man who is having job difficulties may speak to his boss and ask his responsibilities be modified, or he may look for another job.

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Problem Focused Coping

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Involves conscious regulation of emotion. -A mother who is having trouble finding appropriate care for her child while she is at work may tell herself that she should look at the bright side: At least she has a job in a difficult economy.

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Emotion Focused Coping

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Assistance and comfort supplied by others.

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Social Support

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Coping that involves unconscious strategies that distort or deny the true nature of a situation. -People may deny the seriousness of a threat, trivializing a life-threatening illness, or they may tell themselves that academic failure on a series of tests is unimportant.

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Defensive Coping

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People unconsciously try to prevent themselves from experiencing emotions. -By attempting to remain unaffected by negative (or positive) experiences, they try to avoid the pain brought about by the experience.

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Emotional Insulation

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-People use drugs or alcohol to escape from stressful situations. -Like defensive coping, drinking and drug use do not help address the situation causing the stress, and they can increase a person's difficulties.

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Drugs and alcohol

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A personality characteristic associated with a lower rate of stress-related illness.

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Hardiness

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The ability to withstand, overcome, and actually thrive following profound adversity.

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Resilience

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Thinking that acknowledges that adult predicaments must sometimes be solved in realistic terms.

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Postformal Thought

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-He suggested that the nature of thinking changes qualitatively during early adulthood. -Thought requires moral judgements, values, and practical experiences (Should you date your co-worker?) -Adult predicaments must be solved in relativistic terms. -Presence of Dialect Thinking

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Postformal Thought (Labouvie-Vief)

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He believes that post formal thought also takes into account real-world considerations when solving problems.

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Post Formal Thought (Jan Sinnott)

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-Learning not just bodies of knowledge but also ways of understanding the world. -Dualistic Thinking (when entering college); reasoned that something was right or wrong, people are bad or good, others are for them or against them. -They understood more clearly that it is possible to hold multiple perspectives on an issue. -After entering college, their views were regarded as relativistic to the situation. Rather than seeing the world as having absolute standards and values, they argued that different societies, cultures, and individuals could have different standards and values, and all of them could be equally valid.

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Postformal Thought (William Perry)

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He suggests that adults' thinking follows a pattern of stages. -He focuses on the ways in which information is used during adulthood, rather than on changes in the acquisition and understanding of new information.

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Postformal Thought (Warner Schaie)

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According to Schaie, the first stage of cognitive development, encompassing all of childhood and adolescence, in which the main developmental task is to acquire information.

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Acquisitive Stage

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The point reached by young adults in which intelligence is applied to specific situations involving the attainment of long-term goals regarding careers, family, and societal contributions. (2nd stage)

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Achieving Stage

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The stage in which the major concerns of middle-aged adults relate to their personal situations, including protecting and nourishing their spouses, families, and careers. (3rd stage)

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Responsible Stage

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The period in middle adulthood when people take a broader perspective than earlier, including concerns about the world. (4th stage)

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Executive Stage

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The period of late adulthood during which the focus is on tasks that have personal meaning. (5th stage)

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Reintegrative Stage

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Sternberg's theory that intelligence is made up of 3 major components: componential, experimental, and contextual.

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Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

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Includes the mental components involved in analyzing data used in solving problems, especially problems involving rational behavior. -Relates to people's ability to select and use formulas, to choose appropriate problem-solving strategies, and make use of what they have been taught.

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Componential

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Refers to the relationship between intelligence, people's prior experience, and their ability to cope with new situations. -Allows people to relate what they already know to a new situation and an array of facts never before encountered.

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Experimental

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Involves the degree of success people demonstrate in facing the demands of their everyday, real-word environments. -Involved in adapting to on-the-job professional demands.

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Contextual

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According to Sternberg, intelligence that is learned primarily by observing others and modeling their behavior.

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Practical Intelligence

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The set of skills that underlie the accurate assessment, evaluation, expression, and regulation of emotions.

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Emotional Intelligence

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The combination of responses or ideas in novel ways. -Most creative products are created in early adulthood -Productivity remains steady throughout adulthood

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Creativity

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He described creativity as "familiarity breeds rigidity" By this he meant that the more people know about a subject, the less likely they are to be creative in that area.

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Sarnoff Mednick

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Mariage, the death of a parent, starting a first job, the birth of a child, and buying a house. -Causes cognitive growth as well as stress.

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Life Events

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-1/3 of college students now are above age 24 -Attending college is the exception not the rule -Mostly whites -Only 40% of college students who start college exit with a degree (over span of 6 years) -3% of college grads live under poverty line -70% drop out rate for african americans.

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College

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-More woman than men attend college (ULM has a 10:1 ratio of woman to men) 133:100 bachelor's degree for women:men -Men have a more immediate opportunity for money -Affirmative Action-fill up spots with minority; not skill (women, african americans)

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College (Gender)

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-Older adults entering due to primarily economic concerns (26% are 25-35 yrs old) -Maturation Reform: Change of attitude can reduce the risk-taking behavior and make them focus more on acquiring the ability to support their family.

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College (Age)

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A cluster of psychological symptoms, including loneliness, anxiety, withdrawal, and depression, relating to the college experiences suffered by first-year college students. -Applies more often to highly successful students from high school -Often less prepared for college -Passes as they integrate into campus

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First-year adjustment reaction

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-Women: Education and Social Sciences -Men: Physical sciences and mathematics -Attributed by gender stereotypes -Women tend to earn less than men -Professors also tend to treat students differently based on gender.

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College performance and sexism

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A form of sexism in which women are placed in stereotyped and restrictive roles that appear, on the surface, to be positive. -Male teacher giving complimenting student on her good looks or offer to give her an easier research project so she won't have to work so hard.

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Benevolent Sexism

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-58% of people in 6 years complete a 4-yr degree -Reasons: high cost, conflicting demands of college, jobs, marriage, etc, academic difficulties.

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College drop-outs

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The natural physical decline brought about by aging is called

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senescence

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By age ____, illness and disease overtake accidents as the leading cause of death, and, statistically speaking, this is the first time this occurs since infancy.

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35

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Theo returned home from vacationing in Europe. While he was flying home, his father died after suffering a heart attack. When told of his father's death, Theo suffered from symptoms similar to a panic attack. Which of the following terms provides the best description of the immediate effect of Theo's reaction to his father's death?

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acute stressor

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According to Lebouvie-Vief, the complexity of society requires specialization of thought. Therefore, thought is not necessarily based on only logic but also requires all of the following EXCEPT

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intellectual superiority

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Sarnoff Mednick discussed the fact that the more people know about a particular subject the less likely they are to be creative in that subject area. Which of the following quotations addresses this issue?

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"Familiarity breeds rigidity"

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What percent of white high school graduates enter college?

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69%

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Which of the following is a reason why older, nontraditional students attend college?

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economic opportunity

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Recent research indicates that first generation college students

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are particularly susceptible to difficulties during the first year of college

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According to psychologist Jan Sinnot, postformal thought also takes into consideration all of the following except

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that usually a person cannot reach the postformal thought process without first establishing Piaget's formal operations

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According to Schaie, what is the mission of childhood and adolescence?

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acquisition

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According to Sternberg's triarchic theory of intelligence, which type of intellectual assessment measure would be useful when trying to predict adult success?

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contextual intelligence

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According to research by psychologist William Perry, students entering Harvard University tended to have a view of the world where they reasoned that something was good or bad, people were good or bad, and others were for them or against them. He called this

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dualistic thinking

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-Taking Responsibility for yourself -Understanding that you have a unique history and that it is not permanent -Managing the separation from your parents -Redefining the relationships with your parents -Gaining and interrupting your sexual experiences -Becoming capable of intimacy with another -Managing money -Developing skills that can lead to a career -Considering career possibilities -Considering parenthood and possibly becoming a parent -Defining your values -Finding a place in society

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Developmental Tasks of Early Adulthood

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The culturally determined psychological timepiece providing a sense of whether we have reached the major benchmarks of life at the appropriate time in comparison to our peers. -Initially, until the middle of the 20th century, social clocks followed as such: complete education in early 20s, start a career, marry and have kids in mid-20s, start providing for family in 30s

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Social Clock

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-Suggests that people have several social clocks from which to choose, and the selection they make has substantial implications for personality development during middle childhood. -Chose women whose social clock was focused on families, careers, or individualistic target -Found that producing growth, not personality development, was the key shift in the social clock choice. -Social clocks are culturally determined.

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Social Clock (Ravenna Helson)

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According to Erikson, the period from post adolescence into the early 30s that focuses on developing close relationships with others. -Involves components of sexuality, devotion, and selflessness. (Those who experience difficulties during this particular period are lonely, isolated, and fearful of relationships with others) -Problems: Perspective was limited to heterosexuality; more focus on men than women

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Intimacy-versus-Isolation stage

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-Basic need for belongingness that leads people in early adulthood to establish and maintain at least a minimum number of relationships with others. -Proximity: people form friendships with others who live nearby and with whom they come in contact with most frequently -Similarity: people are more attracted to other who hold attitudes and values similar to their own. -Personal Qualities: people are most attracted to others who keep confidences and are loyal, warm, and affectionate.

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Why people become friends.

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-Two people interact with each other more often and for longer periods of time -Two people increasingly seek out each other's company -They open up to each other more and more, disclosing more intimate info about themselves. Begin to share physical intimacies. -Couple is more willing to share both pos and neg feelings, and they may offer criticism in addition to praise. -They begin to agree on the goals they hold for the relationship -Their reactions to situations become more similar -Begin to feel their own psychological well-being is tied to the success of the relationship, viewing it as unique, irreplaceable, and cherished. -Finally, their definition of themselves and their behavior changes: They begin to see themselves and act as a couple, rather than as 2 separate individuals.

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Developmental process of love

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-Is quantitatively and qualitatively different state from 'liking' -Intense psychological arousal -Recurrent fantasies -Rapid swings of emotion -Includes elements of closeness, passion, and exclusively

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Love

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A state of powerful absorption in someone.

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Passionate (or romantic) Love

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The strong affection for those with whom our lives are deeply involved.

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Compassionate Love

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The theory that individuals experience romantic love when 2 events occur together; intense physiological arousal and situational cues suggesting that the arousal is due to love. -Arousal can be produced by sexual arousal, excitement, and negative emotions. -Western Culture: Emphasizes romantic love as "an experience to be sought" -John Gray's Men are from Mars, Women are from Venus

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Hatfield and Berscheid's Labeling Theory of Passionate Love

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Composed of 3 components: passion, intimacy, and decision/commitment -Combinations of these components determine what sort of love people have.

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Sternberg's Triangular Theory

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The component of love that encompasses feelings of closeness, affection, and connectedness.

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Intimacy Component

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The component of love that compromises the motivational drives relating to sex, physical closeness, and romance.

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Passion Component

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The 3rd aspect of love that embodies both the initial cognition that one loves another person and the longer-term determination to maintain that love.

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Decision/Commitment Component

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Intimacy: Absent Passion: Absent Decision/Commitment: Absent -How you may feel about someone who takes your ticket at the movies.

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Nonlove

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Intimacy: Present Passion: Absent Decision/Commitment: Absent -Good friends who have lunch together at least once or twice a week

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Liking

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Intimacy: Absent Passion: Present Decision/Commitment: Absent -A "fling" or short-term relationship based on sexual attraction.

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Infatuated Love

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Intimacy: Absent Passion: Absent Decision/Commitment: Present -An arranged marriage to a couple who have decided to stay married "for the sake of the children"

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Empty Love

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Intimacy: Present Passion: Present Decision/Commitment: Absent -A could who have been happily dating a few months, but have not made any plans for a future together.

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Romantic Love

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Intimacy: Present Passion: Absent Decision/Commitment: Present -A couple who enjoy each other's company and their relationship, although they no longer feel much sexual interest in each other.

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Companionate Love

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Intimacy: Absent Passion: Present Decision/Commitment: Present -A couple who decides to move in together after knowing each other for only 2 weeks.

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Fatuous Love

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Intimacy: Present Passion: Present Decision/Commitment: Present -A loving, sexually vibrant, long-term relationship.

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Consummate Love

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-Love -Good Health -Emotional Stability -Maturity -Dependability -Intelligence -Women: Want an industrious, ambitious partner -Men: Want a physically attractive partner *Best explained by evolutionary tendencies.

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What do people seek when they look for marriage?

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Louis Janda and Karen Klenke-Hamel suggests that people seeking a mate screen potential candidates through successively finer-grained filters. -The model assumes that people first filter for factors relating to broad determinants of attractiveness. Once these early screens have done their work, more sophisticated types of screening are used. -People marry according to Homogamy (the tendency to marry someone who is similar in age, race, education, religion, and other basic demographic characteristics.

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The Filtering Model for Potential Spouses

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The tendency for men to marry women who are slightly younger, smaller, and lower in status, and women to marry men who are slightly older, larger, and higher in status.

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Marriage Gradient

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Some men do not marry because they cannot find women of low enough status to meet the demands of the gradient, or cannot find women of the same or higher status who are willing to accept them as mates. In the words of sociologist Jessie Bernard they are

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"Bottom of the barrel" men

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Some women will be unable to marry because they are higher in status or seek someone of higher status than anyone in the available pool of men. In the words of sociologist Jessie Bernard they are

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"Cream of the crop" women

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Relatively easy to get close to others and is comfortable depending on them and having them to depend on. They do not often worry about being abandoned or about someone getting to close.

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Secure Attachment Style (Shaver)

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They are somewhat uncomfortable being close to others; It is difficult to trust completely, difficult to allow themselves to depend on people. Nervous when anyone gets too close, and often love partners want them to be more intimate than they feel comfortable being.

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Avoidant Attachment Style (Shaver)

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Find that others are reluctant to get as close as they would like. They often worry that their partner doesn't really love them or won't want to stay with them. They want to merge completely with another person, and this desire sometimes scares people away.

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Ambivalent Attachment Style (Shaver)

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Couples living together without being married -Increased 41% in 10 years -Most couples feel they aren't ready to commit to marriage -"practice" -Marriage is outdated -Divorce is higher for those that cohabitate

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Cohabitation

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Live longer, more income, less likely to have stress related problem -90% of people by age 40 marry.

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Benefits of Marriage

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-Affection and little negativity -Perceive themselves as an interdependence couple -Social Homogamy -Similarity -Agreed-Upon distribution of roles -Divorces are common: only 1/2 of marriages remain intact.

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How do you make marriage work?

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-Partners initially idealize one another -They become more aware of the flaws when living together *Best relationships recognize flaws.

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Marital Conflict

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-60% of kids are accidental -Kids are expensive: 300,000 for 2 kids. -Self-serving reasons to have kids: someone to take care of them when they are old; take over family business. -Societal norms -90% of all married couples have at least one kid. -Unplanned pregnancies are more likely to occur in younger, poorer, and out-of-wedlock relationships.

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Parenthood

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1930s: There should be 3 children or more per family 1990: 40% share this view *Most families have 2 kids

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Family Size

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The number of children a generation must produce in order to replenish its numbers

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Replacement Level

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-More women are entering more jobs -Birth control -Waiting later to have children -Cost supersedes reason -Not good enough as a parent

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Decline in Fertility

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-Husbands and wife also must adjust to becoming "Father and Mother" -Babies grant significant demands -Western Culture sees childrearing as a private enterprise -Strain can produce problems for marital satisfaction -Marital Satisfaction can also significantly increase

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Parenting

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-No significant difference in adjustment for children raised in these houses. -Singles often remain so due to neg views of married relations (10% remain unmarried) -Most research suggests that children raised in households in which the parents are homosexual show no differences in terms of eventual adjustment from those raised in heterosexual households. (may face greater challenges from society)

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Gays, Lesbians, and Single Households

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-Marriage is too restrictive -Place great value on personal change and growth, which would be impeded by the stable, long-term commitment implied by marriage. -Some people do not encounter anyone with whom they wish to spend the remainder of their lives.

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Why would people want to be single?

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A stage that is entered between the ages of 20 and 40, when young adults become centered on their careers.

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Career Consolidation

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-Young adults become centered on their careers -Influenced by parent's authority in their 20s -Act with autonomy in their later 20s-30s -According to Vaillant's research, career supplants interest so much that young adults throw themselves unquestioningly into their work. -Considerable Criticism -Work does supply a significant part of one's identity

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Work (Vaillant)

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According to Ginzberg, the period, lasting until about age 11, when career choices are made, and discarded, without regard to skills, abilities, or available job opportunities. (Before age 11)

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Fantasy Period

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The second stage of Ginzberg's theory, which spans adolescence, when people begin to think in pragmatic terms about the requirements of various jobs and how their own abilities might fit with them. (11-17)

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Tentative Period

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The third stage of Ginzberg's theory, which occurs in early adulthood, when people begin to explore specific career options, either through actual experience on the job or through training for a profession, and then narrow their choices and make a commitment. (18+)

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Realistic Period

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-Oversimplifies the process of choosing a career -Overstates the choices and options available to people in lower SES -Ages associated with each stage may be too rigid.

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Criticisms of Ginzberg

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Emphasized that work is chosen based on personality -Flaw: not everyone fits into a particular personality type.

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Holland

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These people are down to earth, practical problem solvers, and physically strong, but their social skills are mediocre. Good farmers, laborers, and truck drivers.

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Realistic Personality

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These types are oriented toward the theoretical and abstract. Although not particularly good with people, they are well suited to careers in math and science.

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Intellectual Personality

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The traits associated with this personality type are related to verbal skills and interpersonal relations. These types are good at working with people, and consequently make good salespersons, teachers, and counselors.

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Social Personality

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These individuals prefer highly structured tasks. They make good clerks, secretaries, and bank tellers.

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Conventional Personality

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These individuals are risk-takers and take-charge types. They are good leaders and may be particularly effective as managers or politicians.

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Enterprising Personality

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These types use art to express themselves, and they often prefer the world of art to interactions with people. They are best suited to occupations involving art.

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Artistic Personality

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-Until the 1960s, most jobs were separated by sex -Women are best fit for communal professions. -Men are best fit with agentic professions. -Communal professions pay less -Discrimination is still present even though it is illegal -Women still earn less than men -Women now make up 55% of labor force -Women have greater amount of opportunities -May encounter glass ceiling

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Work (Gender)

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Occupations that are associated with relationships (nursing)

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Communal Professions

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Occupations that are associated with getting things accomplished. (carpentry)

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Agentic Professions

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Motivation that drives people to obtain tangible rewards, such as money and prestige.

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Extrinsic Motivation

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Motivation that causes people to work for their own enjoyment, not just for the rewards work may bring.

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Intrinsic Motivation

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Psychologist Ravenna Helson's research demonstrated that the critical factor in the course of personality development for women is

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the process of choosing a particular social clock

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According to Erikson, the focus of a person's early 30s is

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developing close, intimate relations with others

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All of the following reasons are explanations as to why people become friends EXCEPT

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social standing and financial security

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According to Robert Sternberg, infatuated love develops when only _________ is present.

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passion

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According to Robert Sternberg, when two people share a loving, sexually vibrant, long-term relationship, this is called

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consummate love

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Jorge has been taught to marry a woman who is younger, smaller, and lower in status. This is referred to as the

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marriage gradient

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Jack is 16-years-old and wants to become an architect like his father and eventually take over the family architectural firm when he grows up. However, Jack has been evaluated and found to have a specific learning disability in mathematics. Jack may need to reconsider his plans based upon the difficulty he experiences with all forms of math. According to Ginzberg, Jack is in the

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tentative period

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According to psychologist George Vaillant's longitudinal research study of male Harvard graduates, all of the following usually occur when a man is in his late 20s and early 30s except

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he fulfills obligations to his parents

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Research suggests that children raised in households in which parents are homosexual

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show no differences in eventual adjustment

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Which of the following is an example of "bottom of the barrel" men?

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men who do not marry because they cannot find a woman of low enough status

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What percentage of people eventually marry?

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90%

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In what percentage of households in the U.S. do women earn as much as their husbands?

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50%

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