question

discourse

answer

the way (a process) that spoken or written text (a product) is used for communicative effect in real world situations - "any connected piece of speaking or writing" (Thornbury)

question

discourse analysis

answer

the study and analysis of the structures, features, purposes and uses of whole texts (beyond the sentence level)

question

morpheme

answer

a meaningful unit of language that cannot be further divided Ex. mean, ing and ful are three examples.

question

homonym

answer

a word that has the same spelling or pronunciation as another, but different a meaning Ex. trunk - elephant or car

question

homophone

answer

a word which has the same pronunciation as another word but a different spelling and meaning [Cambridge] Ex. sea and see; steak and stake

question

lingua franca

answer

a language that is adopted and used widely as a common language between speakers whose native languages are different Ex. Latin during the Middle Ages in the Roman empire

question

elision

answer

the omission of a sound or syllable in connected speech - often happens to /t/ and /d/ in English, particularly when they are between two consonants Ex. first floor /fɜrs flɔr/; I don't know /ai dəʊ 'nəʊ/

question

assimilation

answer

a feature of connected speech when a sound changes to another sound because of a neighboring sound [Cambridge] - /t/, /d/ and /n/ at the end of words often change to the place of articulation of the consonant at the beginning of the next word Ex. handbag /hæmbæɡ/; green park /griːmpɑːrk/; ten boys /tembɔɪz/; bad guy /bæg gaɪ/; this shop /ðIʃ ʃɒp/

question

liaison

answer

the smooth linking or joining together of words in connected speech... concerned with the way sounds are fused together at word boundaries [Underhill] - often used for vowel + vowel linking whereas catenation is used for consonant + vowel linking - intrusive sounds are often inserted such as /w/, /j/ or (British) /r/ Ex. you are (ju wɑr/); he is /hiː jɪz/; (British) law and order /lɔː r ən ɔːdə/

question

phoneme

answer

the smallest unit of sound that can differentiate the meaning between two words - there are 44 in RP (received pronunciation) Ex. 'mine' changes to 'pine' when the /m/ is changed to /p/

question

allophone

answer

a phonetic / sound / pronunciation variation of a single phoneme [Cambridge] - the difference in pronunciation does not affect meaning - determined by position in a word - the same phoneme may be aspirated / unaspirated / released / unreleased - all phonemes have this Ex. the aspirated 'k' in kit and the unaspirated 'k' in skit are both examples for the phoneme /k/; /p/ of pin and the /p/ of spin; the /l/ at the beginning of little and the /l/ at the end /.

question

stress

answer

the emphasis given to certain syllables in a word, or to certain words in a phrase or sentence - typically signaled by increased loudness and vowel length, more energy, full, purer articulation of the vowel, changes (often higher) in pitch and larger jaw, lip and facial movements Ex. ˌsɪnguˈ*lar*ity

question

tone unit (aka tone group)

answer

any collection of sounds or words with a nucleus (prominent syllable where there is a pitch change) - it defines where one pitch pattern ends and the next begins - the minimal unit which can carry intonation - it can be one syllable long, but usually extends over a few syllables Ex. YES, thank you; WONderful; MY umbrella.

question

monophthong

answer

a vowel that has a single perceived auditory quality Ex. /e/

question

diphthong

answer

a sound formed by the combination of two vowels in a single syllable, in which the sound begins as one vowel and glides toward another Ex. coin /ɔɪ/; loud /aʊ/

question

consonant

answer

a sound in which the air flow is restricted or blocked and then released -can be combined with a vowel to form a syllable - /w/ and /j/ are exceptions and are considered semi-vowels Ex. m, t, k

question

vowel

answer

a voiced sound produced with no closure or friction in the vocal tract so there is no restriction to the flow of air from the lungs. Ex. a e i o u

question

fortis

answer

unvoiced consonants (produced with a strong breath force) Ex. /k/; /p/

question

lenis

answer

voiced consonants (produced with a weaker breath force) Ex. /g/ /b/

question

back-channel

answer

the verbal signals given by the listener to indicate interest, attention, surprise etc. [Cambridge] Ex. really, uh-huh, yeah [Cambridge]

question

direct test

answer

a test that requires a learner to perform the actual skill, often an authentic, real-life activity, that is being measured - contrasts with indirect test - often integrative, which means that the student has to apply several skills at once. Ex. role playing a job interview; writing a letter of complaint; reading and completing an application form [Cambridge]

question

Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL)

answer

using the medium of English to teach a subject such as geography, natural science or history, to learners whose first language is not English [Cambridge] - term coined in 1994 by David Marsh - benefits: cultural awareness, internationalization, language competence, preparation for both study and working life, increased motivation - issues: a dearth of materials; lack of programs that prepare teachers to teach both language and a subject; questions remain about how theory translates into classroom practice

question

affricate

answer

a consonant sound in which the airflow is initially stopped but is then released slowly with friction [Cambridge] Ex. English has two: /tʃ/ and /dʒ/

question

genre

answer

a type of text distinguished by specific features [Cambridge] - ...features you would expect to find in a particular place, with particular people, in a particular context, using a particular channel (phone, email, face-to-face) to achieve a particular result. - - characterized by specific choices about style, manner, tone, quantity, volume, directness, choice of words, formality, type of content etc. - "any type of spoken or written discourse which is used and recognized by members of a particular culture or sub-culture" (Thornbury) Ex. advertisement, poem, anecdotes, magazine articles, informal telephone conversations, academic lectures, jokes, military orders

question

compound word

answer

a new word created by combining two or more words [Cambridge] Ex. seashore; website; moonlight; grandmother

question

stative verb

answer

a verb which can be used to describe a condition, state, belief, emotion, possession or sense [Cambridge] - not normally used in the continuous tense - differentiated from dynamic/action verbs Ex. I like it. I smell bread. I doubt it.

question

proficiency test

answer

a test taken to assess candidates' language ability *independently/regardless of any course of study* [Cambridge] used as an indicator of whether a learner is capable of carrying out a certain job or is able to participate in a (i.e. university) course of study. Ex. IELTS, TOEFL [Cambridge]

question

universal grammar

answer

the theory which claims that every speaker of a language knows a set of principles which apply to all languages and also a set of parameters that can vary from one language to another, but only within set limits [Cambridge] - Noam Chomsky adopted this term to argue that humans are genetically programmed with an innate language learning faculty and that all languages share certain fundamental principles

question

critical period hypothesis

answer

argues that animals, including humans, are genetically programmed to acquire certain kinds of knowledge and skills at specific times in life - suggests that children not given access to language in infancy and early childhood will never acquire language

question

contrastive analysis hypothesis

answer

claims that errors are the result of transfer from the learners' first language [Robert Lado 1957] - note: many studies show this isn't true and that errors are better explained in terms of the way language develops naturally irrespective of L1 - in the classroom, this can be used to raise awareness of the differences and similarities between the L1 and L2 and to correct fossilized language Ex. Juan it saw (Spanish speaker translating Juan lo vio)

question

syllabus

answer

a long-term overview and item-by-item description of the teaching content of a course - one way the beliefs, values and theories of a curriculum are operationalized - its design involves selecting and grading content - British linguist, Alan Waters, criticized these by saying their linear, segmental and pre-determined nature doesn't reflect the holistic, developmental and unpredictable nature of language learning.

question

structural syllabus

answer

a syllabus which is based around a series of grammatical structures sequenced according to assumed level of complexity [Cambridge] - most coursebooks are still organized this way - form-based legacy of Audio-lingualism Ex. verb 'to be' -> present simple -> present continuous [Cambridge]

question

functional syllabus

answer

a syllabus organized around items like requesting, narrating, apologizing, giving advice etc.

question

thematic syllabus

answer

a syllabus organized around a series of topics like weather, family, food and drink

question

situational syllabus

answer

a syllabus based on contexts the learner is likely to encounter and language needed to make that encounter successful Ex. shopping for groceries, renting an apartment, visiting the doctor etc.

question

task-based syllabus

answer

a syllabus in which instruction is programmed around a series of tasks such as planning an excursion or designing a logo

question

text-based syllabus

answer

a syllabus based around the discourse needs of the learners - associated with genre-driven approaches to teaching

question

negotiated (process) syllabus

answer

a syllabus in which content and direction of the program are jointly and continuously decided between the learners and teacher

question

cohesion

answer

- the unifying of individual sentences or utterances into a connected text through use of grammatical or lexical devices such as referencing, linkers and lexical chains e.g. John felt ill *so he* took the day off. *As a result he* lost a *day's* pay. [Cambridge] - the use of grammatical and lexical means to achieve connected text, either spoken or written. These include: reference words e.g. this, the, it; linkers, e.g. However and topic-related lexis. [Cambridge]

question

anaphoric reference

answer

a word or phrase that refers back to another word or phrase which was used earlier in a text (written or spoken)...it makes a text cohesive... the second word or phrase is different in some way from the first [Cambridge] - uses pronouns to refer back to things already mentioned - contrasts with cataphoric reference Ex. 'Where are my keys?' 'You left *them* on the kitchen table.' Them refers back to keys in the first utterance. [Cambridge] Ex. I saw Pema on Friday. *She* looked great.

question

ellipsis

answer

the omission in speaking or writing of individual words, or parts of a sentence, which are not needed to convey the meaning. For example, it can be used to avoid repetition. [Cambridge] - a cohesive device used when, after a more specific mention, words are omitted when the phrase needs to be repeated Ex. 'Got a pen?' 'Yes, I have.' [Cambridge] Ex. A: Where are you going? B: To dance.

question

morphology

answer

the study of the formation and structure of words (stems, roots, prefixes, suffixes)

question

countable noun

answer

a noun that can be counted - has both singular and plural forms - in the singular, it can be preceded by 'a' or 'an' - all nouns in English have the potential to be this: snow the stuff and snow the event (Thornbury) Ex. cat/cats; woman/women; country/countries

question

uncountable noun

answer

refers to abstract ideas or qualities, or physical objects that are too small or too amorphous to be counted (liquids, powders, gases, etc.) - used with a singular verb - usually does not have a plural form - all nouns in English have the potential to be this (snow the stuff and snow the event) Ex. water, music, information, love

question

intransitive verb

answer

a verb which does not take an object [Cambridge] Ex. He runs everyday [Cambridge] Ex. die, arrive, go, lie, sneeze, sit, snore

question

transitive verb

answer

a verb that can take a direct object - the action is done to someone or something - most verbs are this type Ex. throw, eat, read

question

corpus (plural = corpora)

answer

a database of real language samples (either spoken or written texts) stored on a computer and which can be used for investigating language use and structure [Cambridge] Ex. COCA (Corpus of Contemporary American English); BNC (British National Corpus)

question

concordance

answer

the output of a corpus in the form of an index of all instances of the search word along with their contexts and information about the frequency and location of each

question

bottom-up processing

answer

attending to the individual elements (ex. knowledge of words and grammar) in order to comprehend a whole text Ex. using understanding of affixation to guess meaning

question

top-down processing

answer

using [either pre-existing] knowledge/information/experience [or of discourse or topic/culture/social norms] to understand (reading/listening) texts [Cambridge] - used to activate schemata - differentiated from bottom-up processing - most researchers regard reading/listening as a combination of bottom-up processing and this Ex. Using visuals, prediction or brainstorming activities (before reading a text about New York, the learner creates a mental picture of related ideas such as yellow cabs, The Statue of Liberty and crowds of people)

question

synonym

answer

a word that means nearly the same as another word in the same language Ex. buy/purchase; big/large

question

antonym

answer

a word which is opposite in meaning to another one [Cambrige] Ex. big-small; arrive-leave; bad-good; strong-weak; optimist-pessimist

question

lexical set

answer

a group of words that share a meaning relationship because they relate to a particular topic or situation Ex. school: classroom, whiteboard, teacher, students

question

lexical phrases (aka language chunks or chunks)

answer

collocational combinations of words in larger multi-word units (like pre-fabricated building units) that behave as if they were single words - many have idiomatic meanings - sometimes these are phrasal verbs Ex. in the black; by the way; on the other hand; an only child; can't afford to; I'll see what I can do

question

pitch

answer

the degree of highness or lowness of a tone Ex. (high) sirens or train whistles; (low) fog horn

question

intonation

answer

the rise and fall pattern of pitch variation in speaking. Can indicate: *the attitudes and emotions of the speaker *signal the difference between statements and questions, and between different types of questions *signal whether or not a point is finished *contrast new information with that already known. Ex. high when frightened; ending yes/no questions high; ending wh- questions low; falling tone at end of statement = finished/rising=will continue

question

false friends

answer

words in two different languages that look or sound similar, but differ significantly in meaning Ex. embarrassed (=shame in English) and embarazada (=pregnant in Spanish); sensible (=reasonable in English but sensitive in Spanish)

question

cognates

answer

two words which have the same (or similar) form and meaning in two different languages [Cambridge] - can help Ls because the meaning is clear Ex. telephone (English) and teléfono (Spanish)

question

etymology

answer

the study of the origin of words and the way in which their meanings have changed throughout history

question

false cognates

answer

pairs of words that seem to be cognates because of similar sounds and meaning, but actually have different etymologies. Ex. to have (English with proto-Germanic origin) haber (Spanish with Latin origin)

question

syntax

answer

the rules, patterns and principles that govern the structure and word order of well-formed sentences Ex. In English, S-V-O (Subject-Verb-Object)

question

phonetics

answer

the study of the production and perception of sounds of human speech in any language (often without prior knowledge of the language being spoken)

question

phonology (aka phonemics)

answer

the systematic organization, patterns and interpretation of sounds in a particular language - deals with phonemes (smallest unit of sound)

question

articulators

answer

the parts of the mouth and throat used to make speech sounds Ex. lips, tongue, teeth, alveolar ridge, palate, velum and vocal cords

question

glottal stop

answer

a plosive produced by a complete block of airflow in the thrat that blocks the previous sound, then is suddenly released with the onset of the following sound. Can also come at the end of a word. The IPA symbol is /ʔ/. Ex. uh-oh; bʌʔɜː/(butter); What?/wɒʔ/

question

glottis

answer

the part of the larynx consisting of the vocal cords and the slitlike opening between them - it affects voice modulation through expansion or contraction

question

larynx

answer

the hollow muscular organ forming an air passage to the lungs and holding the vocal cords in humans and other mammals; the voice box

question

paralinguistics

answer

the study of the vocal and physical features of communication that take place outside of normal (lexical and grammatical) systems of communication Ex. *vocal*: whispering, breathy or nasal voices, tone *physical*: facial expressions (smiling to welcome, raising eyebrows to show surprise, biting lip to indicate uncertainty); gestures (shrug shoulders to show I don't care); waving hello or a 'go away' gesture *proximity* (closeness can indicate intention, intimacy or threat) *posture* (hanging head = mood) *echoing* (two people keen to agree adopting the same posture)

question

interjection

answer

a sound, word or phrase used to express a strong feeling Ex. tsk-tsk; ugh; phew; Wow!; No way!

question

plosive (stops)

answer

a consonant speech sound that is produced by stopping the airflow completely using the lips, teeth, or palate, followed by a sudden release/explosion of the built up air pressure Ex. the basic ones in English are t, k, and p (voiceless) and d, g, and b (voiced).

question

washback (aka backwash)

answer

the positive or negative impact of a test on classroom teaching [Cambridge]

question

indirect test

answer

a test where the tasks do not reflect real language use, and learners' abilities are inferred [Cambridge] - assesses knowledge about a subject without authentic application or requiring the student to demonstrate the ability to use it -contrasts with direct test Ex. multiple choice questions; cloze items; paraphrasing; sentence re-ordering; matching words with their vowel sounds

question

metalanguage

answer

words used to talk about or describe language Ex. gerund; noun; adverb

question

coherence

answer

what makes a text make overall sense - achieved through: -the use of deictic, anaphoric and cataphoric elements or a logical tense structure, as well as presuppositions and implications connected to general world knowledge - lexical clues and implicit logical connections bind texts. The logical connections don't necessarily have explicit conjuncts but have same functions: - additive: following sentences give details or specifics about previous sentences (movement from general to specific) - adversative: show contrasts (even if linkers like "however" aren't present) - causal: the subsequent sentence provides a reason for the situation or request in the first - temporal: chronological order of events can be implied rather than explicit - 'theme and rheme' (topic and comment) signal the evolving argument of a text. Topic is brief launch pad that occurs at the beginning of a clause and the comment is new, longer information that occurs at the end of a clause. - nominalization via the use of key words like process, situation, problem, answer or way

question

deictic (noun = deixis)

answer

describes words or expressions whose meaning is dependent on the context in which they are used or that refer directly to people, things or activities in the immediate environment Ex. here, you, me, that one there, or next Tuesday

question

lexical chain

answer

a sequence of related words in writing, spanning short (adjacent words or sentences) or long distances (entire text) Ex. gets home, eats dinner, goes to bed; (time expressions) 5:30pm, 6:00pm, 9:00pm

question

use

answer

the typical contexts, conversations and situations in which target language might be utilized

question

pragmatics

answer

the study of how language is used in context to express things like politeness, humor, requests, directness and deference and of how the literal and semantic meanings don't match Ex. "Is that your dog?" can express admiration or be a request to get it out of the speaker's garden Ex. "Thank you for not smoking" looks like gratitude but is actually a request/prohibition

question

complement

answer

a word or words necessary to complete the meaning of an expression - often renames or describes the subject - most phrases and clauses include this - in clauses with linking verbs (be, seem, become), when these follow the verb and add information about the subject, it is a subject ___________________: Ex. Sheila is *a nurse*. John is *weak*. When it adds more information about an object it's called an object ____________________: Ex. He makes *me very angry*. (adding information about me)

question

adjunct

answer

an adverbial / word or phrase used to amplify or modify the meaning of another word or words in a sentence - It's not essential to complete the verb like a complement is - it just adds extra information. Ex. We usually go away *in the spring*.

question

curriculum

answer

a general statement of educational beliefs, values, theory and objectives concerned with the planning, implementation, evaluation, management and administration of education programs - larger and more general than a syllabus

question

input hypothesis (aka the monitor model)

answer

a group of five hypotheses of SLA developed by the linguist Stephen Krashen in the 1970s and 1980s: 1. the input hypothesis 2. the acquisition-learning hypothesis 3. the monitor hypothesis 4. the natural order hypothesis 5. the affective filter hypothesis

question

input hypothesis

answer

claims that learners progress in their knowledge of the language when they comprehend language input that is slightly more advanced than their current level. With this level of input, "i+1", "i" is the learner's interlanguage and "+1" is the next stage of language acquisition [Krashen, 70s and 80s] Note: this is also the name of a group of five SLA hypotheses by Krashen, aka the monitor model

question

acquisition-learning hypothesis

answer

claims that there is a strict separation between acquisition (a purely subconscious process) and learning (a conscious process) and that improvement in language ability is only dependent upon acquisition and never on learning [Krashen]

question

monitor hypothesis

answer

claims that consciously learned language can only be used to monitor language output; it can never be the source of spontaneous speech [Krashen]

question

natural order hypothesis

answer

claims that language is acquired in a particular order, and that this order does not change between learners, and is not affected by explicit instruction [Krashen]

question

affective filter hypothesis

answer

claims that learners' ability to acquire language is constrained if they are experiencing negative emotions such as fear or embarrassment [Krashen]

question

conjunction (aka linker)

answer

a part of speech that connects words, sentences, phrases, or clauses

question

coordinating conjunction

answer

a word which connects / links (independent) clauses words / phrases of equal importance/status/rank / have the same grammatical structure [Cambridge] - usually no comma after - differentiated from subordinating conjunction - common in spoken English Ex. (FANBOYS) for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so

question

correlative conjunctions

answer

conjunctions that work in pairs to join words and groups of words of equal weight in a sentence. Ex. *either...or* - You either pay the farmer now or the doctor later. *not only...but (also)* - He's not only handsome, but also kind. *whether...or* - Only you can decide whether you stay or you go.

question

subordinating conjunction (aka subordinators)

answer

a conjunction that joins an independent (main) clause and a dependent (subordinating) clause - also introduces adverb clauses - unlike coordinating conjunctions, they do not join two clauses of equal status Ex. after, although, as, as far as, as if, as long as, as soon as, as though, because, before, even if, even though, every time, if, in order that, since, so, so that, than, though, unless, until, when, whenever, where, whereas, wherever, and while

question

conjunct (aka linker)

answer

an adverbial that adds information to the sentence and connects the sentence with previous parts of the discourse or connects clauses within a sentence. Four types: 1. *additive*: also; too; as well; moreover; for example; likewise; in addition 2. *adversative*: but, though, however, on the other hand, in fact, alternatively; on the contrary 3. *causal*: this is why, so, therefore, as a result 4.*temporal*: first, next, then, finally, in the meantime, ever since differentiated from conjunction, which connects units within a sentence.

question

lexical cohesion

answer

the ties created between words and phrases that contribute to the continuity of meaning. Ex. direct repetition; word families; collocations; synonyms; antonyms; lexical chains; lists; substitution

question

grammatical cohesion

answer

the ties created with structural content that contribute to the continuity of meaning Ex. pronouns; anaphoric and cataphoric references; articles, substitution (that long =30 years); ellipsis of clause elements; conjuncts; comparatives; tense agreement

question

schema (plural = schemata)

answer

1. the way knowledge about a topic is represented and organized in the mind. Ex. At check-in they told me my flight had boarded. (a listener would need air travel knowledge to understand) 2. the temporary mental picture a reader/listener contructs when processing a text. Ex. the sequence of main events in a story - crucial in top-down comprehension

question

situational presentation

answer

language is introduced via a context that the teacher has created - used in the oral approach and situational language teaching Ex. drawings or photos for "used to"

question

zone of proximal development (ZPD)

answer

an area of learning that occurs when a person is assisted by someone with a skill set higher than that of the learner [Soviet psychologist Lev Vygotsky, 1896-1934] Vygotsky's words: "the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem-solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem-solving and adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers"

question

approach

answer

a set of assumptions dealing with the nature of language, language learning and teaching (Edward Anthony 1963) - refers to theories about the nature of language and language learning that serve as the source of practices and principles in language teaching (Richards and Rogers 2001) - it is the source of the way things are done in the classroom and provides reasons for doing them

question

method

answer

an overall plan for systematic presentation of language based on an approach (Edward Anthony 1963) - includes decision about types of activities, procedures, techniques, roles of T and S, kinds of material and syllabus model Ex. the direct method, Audio-lingualism, total physical response, community language learning, suggestopedia; the Silent Way

question

procedure

answer

an ordered sequence of techniques. Can be described as "First...then..." Smaller than a method, bigger than a technique. Ex. steps of running dictation

question

technique

answer

a specific, single activity consistent with a method and in harmony with an approach (Edward Anthony 1963) - distinguished from a sequence of activities Ex. T uses fingers to represent a sentence... puts two fingers together to indicate a contraction

question

exophoric reference (aka exophora)

answer

reference to something not in the same text - contrasts with endophoric reference (aka endophora) - can be deictic or can reference general information people share Ex. "Did the gardener water those plants?"... "those" refers back to a preceding text/conversation or some earlier mention of those particular plants in the discussion

question

endophoric reference (aka endophora)

answer

an expression that derives its reference from something within the surrounding text - anaphoric and cataphoric are the two types of this - differentiated from exophoric reference (aka exophora) Ex. "I saw Sally yesterday. *She* was lying on the beach".

question

homophoric reference (aka homophora)

answer

a type of exophora that requires cultural knowledge to understand instead of something specific in the text Ex. The meaning of "the Queen" may be determined by the country in which it is spoken.

question

suprasegmentals (aka prosody or prosodic features)

answer

pronunciation features of an utterance beyond discrete consonants, vowels and phonemes that give it shape and make it interesting and listenable - differentiated from segments/segmental features of pronunciation Ex. intonation; stress; rhythm; nasality; loudness, tempo

question

segment

answer

any discrete unit that can be identified, either physically or auditorily, in the stream of speech - differentiated from suprasegmentals Ex. phoneme, syllable, morpheme, consonant, vowel

question

bilabial

answer

a consonant sound formed by closure or near closure of the lips (m, w) Ex. /p/ = unvoiced bilabial plosive; /b/ = voiced bilabial plosive /w/=voiced bilabial semi-vowel

question

alveolar

answer

consonant sound articulated with the tongue touching or close to the superior alveolar ridge Ex. /t/=unvoiced alveolar plosive; /d/=voiced alveolar plosive /r/=post alveolar frictionless continuant

question

palato-alveolar

answer

a consonant articulated when the blade of the tongue touches the alveolar ridge while the main body of the tongue is near the hard palate Ex. /tʃ/=unvoiced palato-alveolar affricate (cheap) /dʒ/=voiced palato-alveolar affricate (jeep) /ʃ/=unvoiced palato-alveolar fricative (fashion) /ʒ/=voiced palato-alveolar fricative (fusion)

question

nominalization

answer

the use of a word which is not a noun (e.g. a verb, an adjective or an adverb) as a noun with or without morphological transformation. Ex. It's a good *read*; The *legalization* of marijuana has enabled many new businesses. - also nouns used to nominalize actions, events or ideas not previously mentioned in a text (Thornbury) Ex. Susan Sarandon talked about the project. (In a previous text the word "project" was never used, just an explanation of how a documentary was made).

question

corpus linguistics

answer

the study of language as expressed in corpora (samples) of "real world" text

question

velars

answer

consonants articulated with the back part of the tongue (the dorsum) against the soft palate (aka velum) Ex. /k/=unvoiced velar plosive /g/=voiced velar plosive /ŋ/=voiced velar nasal

question

fricative

answer

a consonant sound where the flow of air is partially constricted and released slowly [Cambridge] - there are eight in English Ex. /f/; /v/; /θ/; /ð/;/ʃ/;/ʒ/;/z/ /h/=unvoiced fortis fricative onset

question

labiodental

answer

a consonant articulated with the lower lip and the upper teeth Ex. /f/=unvoiced labiodental fricative /v/=voiced labiodental fricative

question

grammar

answer

generalizable patterns and rules of language and the ability to construct new phrases and sentences out of syntax and morphology to express a precise and unique meaning

question

lexis

answer

the level of language consisting of traditional, single-word vocabulary, collocations and longer chunks

question

dental fricative

answer

a fricative consonant pronounced by pressing the tip of the tongue lightly against the inside edge of the top front teeth Ex. /θ/=voiceless dental fricative (thanks) /ð/=voiced dental fricative (this)

question

alveolar fricative

answer

a consonant pronounced by lightly pressing the blade of the tongue against the alveolar ridge enough for the escaping airstream to produce friction Ex. /s/=unvoiced alveolar fricative (Sue) /z/=voiced alveolar fricative (zoo)

question

affect

answer

emotions (i.e. anxiety, pleasure) that can influence Ss' motivation to learn English - Ts can impact this by building rapport, reducing stress, showing they care and respecting and supporting Ss - often contrasted with cognitive factors like learning preferences

question

agency

answer

the capacity (of Ss) to act - Ss have it if they are in control of their own learning - related to motivation Ex. Allow Ss to tell us when and if they want to be corrected in a fluency activity. Or have Ss tell us which words they find difficult to pronounce then work on those. Or allow Ss to choose which HW they wanted/needed to do.

question

end-weight principle

answer

- the tendency to place new information, usually a longer structure, at the end of the sentence - the new information (comment) then becomes the first, shorter information (topic) of the next sentence - the comment is the rheme of theme and rheme - aspect of coherence Ex. Genes carry *all information needed to make a plant or animal*. This information *decides sex and characteristics*.

question

modality

answer

refers to a speaker's or a writer's attitude, judgment, feelings ("mood") or personal interpretation of non-factual and non-temporal elements of an event - can be used to express certainty, possibility, probability, willingness, obligation, necessity and ability Ex. core verbs: can, could, may, might, will, shall, would, should, must semi-: dare, need, ought to, used to other verb forms that do this: have (got) to, be going to and be able to

question

nasal

answer

an occlusive consonant produced with a lowered velum, allowing air to escape freely through the nose. Ex. /m/= voiced bilabial nasal /n/=voiced alveolar nasal /ŋ/=voiced velar nasal

question

onset

answer

a sound at the beginning of a syllable before the nucleus - it adopts the place of articulation of the following vowel - when there are two prominent syllables in a tone group, this is the first and the tonic syllable is the second Ex. I'll *phone* you to*mor*row. Ex./h/=unvoiced fortis fricative onset

question

dark /l/

answer

an /l/ allophone in which the tongue doesn't break contact with the roof of the mouth so the alveolar sound is maintained - occurs before consonants and at the end of words Ex. The word 'little' starts with a clear /l/ and ends with this.

question

clear /l/

answer

An /l/ allophone that occurs when the tongue breaks contact with the roof of the mouth - usually only happens before vowels Ex. The word 'little' starts with this and ends with a dark /l/.

question

palatal

answer

a consonant articulated with the body of the tongue raised against the hard palate. There is only one in English. Ex. /j/=voiced palatal semi-vowel

question

cognitive linguistics

answer

an approach to the analysis of natural language that originated in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Focuses on language as an instrument for organizing, processing, and conveying information. Highlights the view that language is just one of the complex knowledge systems that humans acquire. Characterized by adherence to three central positions: 1. it denies that there is an autonomous linguistic faculty in the mind 2. it understands grammar in terms of conceptualization 3. it claims that knowledge of language arises out of language use

question

interaction hypothesis

answer

SLA theory that claims the development of language proficiency is promoted by essential face-to-face reciprocal communication - claims that the effectiveness of comprehensible input is greatly increased when learners have to negotiate for meaning - usually credited to Michael Long in 1996, who modified it to include noticing and corrective feedback

question

modified interaction

answer

a necessary mechanism for making language comprehensible, including elaboration, slower speech rate, gestures, additional contextual clues, comprehension checks, clarification requests and paraphrasing - part of negotiation of meaning - doesn't always mean linguistic simplification

question

coarticulation

answer

speech sound is influenced by, overlaps, and becomes more like, a neighbor sound, so the second is forming before the first is finished Ex. With the word pronunciation, the tongue is already in the position for /r/ while the lips are making /p/.

question

comprehensible output hypothesis

answer

states that comprehensible input is insufficient to learn an L2 since language learning takes place when a S tries to produce the L2, notices a gap in his or her linguistic knowledge and is then motivated to modify his/her output (Swain 1985) - related to the noticing hypothesis

question

noticing hypothesis

answer

states that Ss cannot learn the grammatical features of a language unless they notice them - noticing alone does not mean that learners automatically acquire language; rather, it is the essential starting point for acquisition (Schmidt 1990) - related to the comprehensible output hypothesis

question

processability theory

answer

a cognitive approach to SLA developed by Manfred Pienemann that claims learners restructure their L2 knowledge systems in an order of which they are capable at their stage of development - they do so by a series of stages, consistent across learners Ex. In order to acquire the correct morphological and syntactic forms for English questions, learners must transform declarative English sentences.

question

careful colloquial speech

answer

a style of speech with moderate simplification in which words remain closer to their dictionary pronunciation than with rapid colloquial speech - deliberate, slow and likely to be used in a more formal setting - good to use as learner target for speaking Ex. BBC newscasters

question

rapid colloquial speech

answer

a style of speech in which words are further from their dictionary pronunciation because they are spoken faster, with less care and attention to precise articulation - used in less formal settings and when native speakers talk to each other - differentiated from careful colloquial speech - good to use as learner target for listening

question

vowel reduction

answer

changes to the acoustic quality of unaccented vowels in the stream of speech characterized by decrease in length, weakening and a change in quality towards a less distinct, more central vowel sound - most monophthongs change towards /ə/; /uː/ can reduce to /ʊ/

question

juncture

answer

the clear boundary between two words in connected speech Features that can occur on either side: * shortening or lengthening of vowel sounds * delayed or advanced articulation of consonant sounds * variations in degree of syllable stress * allophonic variations in phonemes Ex. ice cream vs. I scream; It's an aim vs. It's a name

question

discourse marker

answer

a word or phrase whose function is to organize language into segments - a verbal signpost - shows intentions and how what was just said or will be said connects to what went before or is coming up Ex. well; I mean; but; you know

question

grammar words (aka function words)

answer

words that may have less meaning by themselves whose purpose is to connect content words together in grammatical relationships Ex. weak forms of articles, conjunctions, prepositions, pronouns and auxiliary verbs

question

stress-timed language

answer

a language in which stressed syllables occur at regular/equal intervals of time, regardless of the number of unstressed syllables in between - the unstressed syllables shorten to fit the rhythm - Ss with a syllable-timed L1 might struggle to produce unstressed sounds Ex. English; German; Thai, Russian, Swedish, Portuguese

question

syllable-timed language

answer

a language in which each syllable takes roughly the same amount of time and which generally lacks reduced vowels Ex. Spanish, Italian, Mandarin, French, Japanese

question

display question

answer

a question a teacher asks and knows the answer to in order to see if the S knows the answer - important for checking understanding but not authentic or communicative as often only requires one-word answers Ex. What is the past simple form of leave?

question

referential question

answer

a question you ask because you don't know the answer - more authentic and communicative than display questions

question

tonic syllable (aka nucleus or nuclear stress)

answer

the place in an utterance where the major pitch movement begins, marking the focal point of the message [Cambridge 2008] the prominent syllable in a tone unit [Cambridge] Ex. I live in LONdon

question

adjacency pair

answer

a sequence of two related utterances by two different speakers...the first utterance leads to a set of expectations about the response ...based on sociolinguistic context ...second utterance can be a 'preferred' or 'dispreferred' response [Cambridge] - a unit of conversation that contains a predictable two-way exchange...the turns are functionally related to each other such that the first turn requires a certain type or range of types of second turn Ex. greeting-greeting (A: Hi! B: Hello there.) saying thank you (A: Thank you. B: You're welcome) question-answer (A: How are you? B: Fine, thanks)

question

transactional language

answer

language used to achieve an exchange of goods or information - often taught more in ELT classrooms than interactional language as it involves shorter turns, simpler and more predictable language, and can have a measurable result Ex. writing a letter of complaint Ex. writing an email asking for a refund Ex. at the greengrocer: A: Two pounds of cherry tomatoes. B : These ones, or the ones next to the potatoes? A: The ones next to the potatoes B : That's £5

question

interactional language

answer

language used to build and maintain relationships - differentiated from transactional language, which is the language used to get things done Ex. authentic conversations like chatting before class

question

common ground

answer

the knowledge and experience the participants of an interaction think they share about the world, the topic, and each other in terms of ideas, emotions, attitudes, viewpoints etc. at any given point in the conversation

question

proclaiming tone

answer

a pitch that finishes with a falling movement to indicate information additional to the common ground. Ex. That guy we met at the party *is my new teacher.*

question

referring tone

answer

a pitch that finishes with a rising movement to indicate information given as already shared and part of the common ground. Ex. *That guy we met at the party* is my new teacher.

question

oblique intonation

answer

a falling tone used when quoting instructions, prayers or poems or reading aloud from a text - no meaning is communicated

question

casual conversation

answer

consists of alternating sequences of story-plus-commentary and speech-in-action, all framed by openings and closings. This loose macrostructure provides a safe and predictable framework within which speakers can appear to be spontaneous and creative.

question

story sequences

answer

an organizational feature of casual conversation that includes temporal location, specification of participants, a sequence of events and evaluation

question

speech-in-action

answer

a feature of casual conversation in which talk focuses on the immediate environment of the speakers, including whatever the speakers themselves are doing - contains a high proportion of deictic language

question

disfluencies

answer

any of various breaks, irregularities or non-lexical sounds that occur within the flow of otherwise fluent speech Ex. false starts, restarted or repeated phrases, fillers (grunts or non-lexical utterances such as "huh", "uh", "erm", "um", "well" and "like") and repaired utterances (speakers correcting their own slips of the tongue or mispronunciations)

question

zero tone

answer

a level pitch without significant contrast - can be used: * when there's no reason for making communicative choices * when thinking aloud (er...; mmm...) * during bored, aimless, non-interactive speech (reading something aloud until you get to the interesting part)

question

homograph

answer

a word that is spelled, but not necessarily pronounced, the same as another but that has a different meaning and origin - rare (not many examples) Ex. bow (and arrow) and bow (greeting); combine (mix/join) and combine (harvesting machine); lead (follow) and lead (metal)

question

subtractive bilingualism

answer

a situation in which the second language is added at the expense of the first language and culture, which are devalued by schools and wider society and diminish as a consequence [Cummins] - differentiated from additive bilingualism

question

additive bilingualism

answer

a situation in which a second language is learnt by an individual or a group without detracting from the development of the first language or the value of the first culture - students working in this environment succeed to a greater extent than those in a subtractive bilingual environment (Cummins, 1994)

question

register

answer

the way that language use differs according to variations in context - variables of this in a situation are field, tenor and mode

question

field

answer

a register variable that deals with what is being talked or written about

question

tenor

answer

a register variable that deals with the relationship between the participants

question

mode

answer

a register variable that deals with whether the language is written or spoken

question

Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS)

answer

These language skills are needed in social situations (i.e. playground, lunch room, parties, sports), which occur in meaningful social contexts but are not very demanding cognitively. These language skills usually develop within six months to two years after arrival in an Inner Circle country. - experts such as Jim Cummins differentiate between social and academic language acquisition - problems arise when teachers and administrators think that a child is proficient in a language when they demonstrate good social English Different from CALP

question

Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP)

answer

the level of formal academic language learning essential for students to succeed in school - includes listening, speaking, reading, and writing about subject area content material - Ss need time and support to become proficient in academic areas - usually takes from five to seven years to achieve - differentiated from BICS

question

text as a linguistic object (TALO)

answer

one of three ways, according to John and Davies (1983), to use a text in an ELT classroom that involves displaying pre-selected language features (i.e. language work with grammar or vocabulary). - differentiated from TAVI and TASP Ex. Find all the examples of X in a text (for example, a grammar pattern, function words, a particular verb form...) Find all the words in the text that are connected to X (words that are topically linked, or lexical sets) Decide why certain forms were chosen over others (why was a conditional used, for example)

question

text as a vehicle for information (TAVI)

answer

one of three ways, according to John and Davies (1983), to use a text in an ELT classroom that involves developing reading or listening skills - the information in the text is more important than the language - differentiated from TALO and TASP Ex. discussing questions or statements that relate to the text; marking things in the text that you knew/didn't know before; answering comprehension questions; summarizing the main points of a text; putting events in order

question

text as a springboard for production (TASP)

answer

one of three ways, according to John and Davies (1983), to use a text in an ELT classroom that involves using a text as a stimulus for another task - differentiated from TALO and TAVI Ex. doing a role play or having a debate or discussion based on a text writing a response to a text

question

intertextuality

answer

a literary device in which a text's meaning is shaped by another text, connecting to a larger discourse Ex. the newspaper headline "Lord of the Strings" for an article about Stradivarius, the violin maker (reference to Tolkien's Lord of the Rings novel/trilogy)

question

critical linguistics (aka critical discourse analysis CDA)

answer

the study of how language is coopted for ideological purposes by investigating how societal power relations are established and reinforced through language use

question

PARSNIP

answer

an acronym for topics that are considered inappropriate: politics, alcohol, religion, sex, narcotics, isms and pork

question

glocalization

answer

the adaptation of international products around the particularities of a local culture in which they are sold - EFL coursebooks are often written for a global market and thus don't accommodate local interests, concerns and aspirations - a blending of teaching theory, attitudes and strategies from English-speaking countries and local teaching expertise, learning styles and educational contexts Ex. balancing CLT with exam preparation in countries with high-stakes exam cultures

question

affixation

answer

the morphological process of adding a bound morpheme to the stem of a word, either at the end or at the beginning. This modifies the word's meaning and/or changes its word class, e.g. adding *ful* to use or *un* to tidy. [Cambridge] Ex. *multi*cultural; look*ed*; bit*s*; shopp*ing*

question

conversion

answer

when a word that in one context is one part of speech (such as a noun), in another context can be enlisted to serve a different function (such as a verb) Ex. The teacher *boarded* the new words on the *board*.

question

consciousness raising

answer

the process of helping learners notice the patterns and regularities of the language Ex. innate. Review the prefix -in (=into) then ask Ss to recall other words with the root "nat" (ie. nature, nation, native) to help them see "nat" means birth. Therefore, innate = existing in one from birth.

question

semantic syllabus

answer

a syllabus based around meaning - tends to have a strong lexical focus Ex. The present simple supports a wide range of meanings (present habit, future itinerary, past narrative, etc). T starts with the more useful meanings, rather than the structure itself.

question

binomial pairs

answer

pairs of words in the same grammatical category that follow a fixed sequence and often have idiomatic meaning Ex. hot and cold; to and fro; out and about; sick and tired; wear and tear; black and white

question

de-lexicalised verb (aka de-lexical verb)

answer

a verb with little or no (dictionary) meaning on its own / must combine with a noun or adjective to have meaning [Cambridge] - high frequency - can cause problems for learners when trying to translate from their L1 Ex. have (a drink/fun), take (a shower/your time), make (a point/friends), get (lost/married)

question

inflection

answer

the modification of a word to express different grammatical categories (but not change the meaning of the root word) such as tense, case, voice, aspect, person, number, gender, and mood. With verbs it's also called conjugation, and with nouns, adjectives and pronouns is aka declension. Affixes include third person -s, -ed, -ing, plural -s, possessive -s, comparative -er and superlative -est. Ex. write, writes, wrote, written

question

word family

answer

a group of words that share the same root / basic form...the words use different affixes / morpheme additions to make different parts of speech [Cambridge] - the base form of a word plus its inflected forms and derived forms made from affixes Ex. care, careful, careless, uncaring, carer [Cambridge] Ex. understands, understanding, understood, understandable, misunderstand, misunderstood

question

lexeme

answer

a word or group of words that functions as a single meaning unit regardless of the number of inflectional endings - every headword in a dictionary is this Ex. run, runs, ran and running are forms of the same ________________: run

question

polyseme

answer

a word or phrase with different, but related meanings - differentiated from homonym, in which the multiple meanings of a word may be unrelated Ex. fair: This isn't fair (reasonable); we have a fair-sized garden (quite large); she's a fair cook (average)

question

validity

answer

the extent to which a test can be shown to produce scores which are an accurate reflection of the candidate's true level of language skills (i.e. it measures accurately what we intend to test, rather than test something else) [Cambridge]

question

reliability

answer

the extent to which test results are stable and consistent measures of a candidate's performance - this means that if the same test were administered to the same candidate under the same conditions at a different time, it would yield the same results. [Bell]

question

norm-referenced test

answer

a test which compares test takers to each other rather than against external criteria [Cambridge] - differentiated from criterion-referenced test Ex. SAT (U.S.)

question

process writing (aka process approach)

answer

a procedure in which students create a text by planning, drafting, revising, editing and then publishing or sharing it with others [Cambridge]

question

auxiliary verbs

answer

verbs which are used to support another verb in a sentence and have a grammatical function such as showing tense, aspect, person, voice and mood [Cambridge] e.g. be, do, have, will, may, can [Cambridge]

question

fillers (aka pause fillers / hesitators / hesitation devices / hesitation strategies / filler expressions / discourse fillers / conversation fillers)

answer

language used by speakers to avoid frequent, long or silent pauses, to hold the floor, gain thinking time etc. [Cambridge] e.g. er, um, well, you know [Cambridge]

question

pushed output

answer

the practice of insisting Ls deliver a message that is conveyed "precisely, coherently and appropriately" [Swain] - related to the comprehensible output hypothesis - can be considered o+1 (seen as analogous to Krashen's i+1) Ex. T insists on more elaborate utterances (give a more specific word, a full sentence or two adjectives instead of one) or raises the bar on a repeated task (do in less time or without notes)

question

adverbial

answer

a word or phrase functioning as a major part of a clause and typically expressing place, time, or manner -contributes circumstantial information, comments on what's being expressed or links clauses to other components of a text Ex. a single word adverb (She phoned *yesterday*) prepositional phrase (She ran *up the stairs*) noun phrase (She didn't run *this morning*) a clause (She phoned *when she heard the news*)

question

function

answer

the communicative purpose of a language item or the intention of the speaker/writer Ex. "Thank you for dinner" expresses gratitude, whereas "Thank you for not smoking" expresses prohibition

question

non-finite verb (aka verbal)

answer

a verb form that doesn't act like a verb and doesn't show tense - there are three types: participles, infinitives and gerunds

question

derivation

answer

forming a new word from an existing word, changing its core meaning, often by adding a prefix or suffix - differentiated from inflection, which is a grammatical modification that doesn't change the core meaning -prefixes include non-, un-, in- -suffixes include -able, -er, -ish, -less, -ly, -ness, -th, -y, -al, -ation, -ess, -ful, -ism, -ist, -ity, -ize/-ise, -ment Ex. happiness, unhappy

question

performative verb

answer

verb carried out by uttering it aloud Ex. I hereby sentence you to five years in prison; I quit; I do (wedding vow); I thank you for your time

question

formative assessment

answer

assessment which checks students' progress during a course / focuses on the stage of learning that students have reached during the course / tells the students and teacher how well the learners are doing [Cambridge] - a range of formal and informal assessment procedures conducted by teachers during the learning process in order to modify teaching and learning activities to improve student learning - feedback can be used to reshape teaching / learning / influence the development of the rest of the course / decide what needs to be reviewed/focused on next - only tests what has been taught on the course / does not test students' overall ability - usually ongoing during a course - typically involves qualitative feedback rather than scores - differentiated from summative, achievement and proficiency assessments Ex. progress test / diagnostic test [Cambridge] Ex. exit ticket; Ss show with finger 1-5 how well understood; S reflection and self-assessment; constructive feedback on S work

question

summative assessment

answer

the assessment of participants in which the focus is on the outcome of a program, often for purposes of external accountability - used to evaluate student learning progress and achievement at the conclusion of a specific instructional period—usually at the end of a project, unit, course, semester, program, or school year - more judgmental, formal, focused on results and permission to proceed to the next level than formative assessment Ex. final exam; final project; a paper; a senior recital

question

criterion-referenced test

answer

a test that measures student performance against a fixed set of predetermined criteria or learning standards - differentiated from norm-referenced test Ex. IELTS and TOEFL

question

bound morpheme

answer

the smallest meaningful/grammatical unit in a language/word that cannot stand on its own [Cambridge] contrasts with free/unbound morpheme Ex. -ed, -un, -ing, -ly

question

free morpheme (aka unbound morpheme)

answer

the smallest unit of language that can stand alone to function as a word -contrasts with bound morpheme Ex. look, box

question

placement test

answer

a test that checks the skill levels of entering students so they can be placed in the right course

question

progress test

answer

a test given during a course to check how well the items/subskills taught up to that point have been assimilated and retained - it has a formative purpose Ex. a text book with twenty units might provide a test after every five units

question

achievement test

answer

a test that evaluates a learner's understanding of a specific course or study program - can be similar to a progress test Ex. The learners have finished units 1 - 4 of a coursebook and the teacher now gives them one taken from the teacher's book based on what they have seen in these units.

question

prognostic test

answer

a test that tries to predict a learner's ability to complete a course or take an exam

question

diagnostic test

answer

A type of test which is designed to show what language skills or knowledge a learner already has. It is often used by a teacher to find out how much a learner knows before beginning a language course. [Cambridge]

question

discrete item test (aka discrete point test)

answer

a type of indirect test that assesses only one element of language at a time - pros: practical, objective and push learner to show knowledge (L can't avoid) - cons: only show ability to recognize or produce, not use in actual communication Ex. the following multiple choice question only tests the L's knowledge of the correct past form of the verb sing : When I was a child I .......... in a choir. a. sing b. singed c. song d. sung e. sang

question

integrative test

answer

a direct or indirect test that assesses more than one skill or item of knowledge at a time - pro: shows how effectively the learner can use the language in communication - cons: easy for Ls to avoid difficult structure/work around it; Ls don't demonstrate knowledge of specific items Ex. dictation (indirect test) involves listening skills, writing skills, knowledge of specific language items eg in order to distinguish whether /əv/ should be written as have or of and so on Ex. oral interview (direct test) involves listening and choosing relevant grammar and lexis to respond

question

Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEF, CEFR, CEFRL)

answer

a guideline used to describe achievements of learners of foreign languages across Europe and, increasingly, in other countries - levels are A1 through C2

question

transformation

answer

a type of test question that asks a candidate to rewrite a sentence based on an instruction or a key word given - pro: easy to mark, good for testing grammar and understanding of form - con: doesn't test understanding, just candidate's ability to memorize or use a formula, not appropriate to test reading or listening Ex.Complete the second sentence so that it has the same meaning as the first: 'Do you know what the time is, John?' asked Dave. Dave asked John __________ (what) _______________ it was.

question

cloze test

answer

a test in which every nth word has been removed from a text; it tests a range of language knowledge such as grammar, vocabulary or discourse [Cambridge] - it is more integrative than a gap-fill as candidates have to process the components of the language simultaneously - can be very effective for testing language proficiency - the teacher must be careful about multiple correct answers

question

gap-fill

answer

a type of test question in which the candidate fills in a deleted word, chosen to practice a specific language point, to complete a sentence - suitable for assessing specific language ability, such as grammar or vocabulary - used to test or practice listening skills - differentiated from cloze activities, where words are removed at regular intervals, e.g. every five words Ex. Complete the sentence: A: How __________ do you exercise? B: I _______________ do. I can't remember the last time I did.

question

fossilization

answer

a process through which an error has become a permanent feature of a learner's language use and is believed to be resistant to correction [Cambridge] Ex. Many advanced level learners who have Spanish as an L1 still do not distinguish well between 'he' and 'she' or missing third person 's'

question

narrow reading

answer

L reads a great deal from a single author or on a single topic they are interested in. The repetition, interest in the topic and familiar context make input comprehensible. Authors and topics are gradually changed, which allows L to expand competence comfortably. [Krashen]

question

narrow listening

answer

L listens repeatedly to a recording on a topic of their choice. The repetition, interest in the topic and familiar context make input comprehensible. Topics are gradually changed, which allows L to expand competence comfortably. [Krashen]

question

colligation

answer

the association a word has with grammatical function - a type of collocation, but where a lexical item is linked to a grammatical one - the tendency for certain words to call up others for creating grammatical structures Ex. "Select" is rarely used with the infinitive in an active voice but is often used in passive constructions, unlike its synonym "choose". ('He chose to accept the position'...'selected' would sound odd. 'He was selected for the position' is a more common usage for that word.) Ex. Surprising, amazing and astonishing are nearly synonymous. We can say it is astonishing/surprising/amazing, but we tend to say 'it is not surprising' and not the others- surprising colligates with the negative. Ex the abstract noun 'consequence' occurs more frequently as a complement (Climate change is a consequence of irresponsible actions) than a direct object (She threw consequence to the wind).

question

connotation

answer

the attitudinal meaning of a word, which may be culturally determined, such as whether it carries a positive or negative meaning [Cambridge] - a meaning, idea or cultural or emotional association a word evokes that is more than its explicit meaning. Ex. With Wall Street, which is just a street in lower Manhattan, it's wealth and power; with motherhood it's selfless love; with politicians it's negative... insincerity.

question

hyponym

answer

a word of more specific meaning than a general or superordinate term applicable to it - differentiated from hypernym Ex. Green is this for its hypernym, color. Car is this for its hypernym, vehicle.

question

hypernym (aka superordinate)

answer

a term for an 'umbrella' item of lexis which subsumes a range of more specific items [Cambridge] - a word with a broad meaning constituting a category into which words with more specific meanings fall Ex. fruit in relation to apple, orange, pear; vehicle in relation to car, truck, tractor; color in relation to red, orange, green

question

gerund

answer

a noun that is created by adding -ing to the verb stem [Cambridge] can be the subject, complement or object of a sentence Ex. Reading is fun (subject); Her favorite hobby is reading (complement); They enjoy reading (object)

question

jigsaw reading

answer

an activity where learners read different texts/parts of texts and then exchange/compare/share the information they have read [Cambridge] - often used in CLT - creates a communicative purpose for reading the text(s)/an information gap - allows for the integration of skills Ex. The same news item from different newspapers which learners compare / a story divided into parts - learners exchange information to make sense of the whole [Cambridge]

question

intrusive /w/

answer

a linking sound /w/ that is inserted between a word which ends in a vowel sound and a following one which begins with a vowel sound [Cambridge] - a feature of connected speech - eases the transition between words - after the vowels /ʊ/, /u/, /əu/, /au/ - links final rounded lip vowels to following vowel Ex. you are (ju wɑr/); go out /gəʊwaʊt/

question

notional syllabus

answer

a syllabus organised around (abstract) concepts/meanings /ideas AND the exponents used to express them [Cambridge] - associated with CLT and meaning-driven aims - often combined with a functional syllabus - notions are similar to functions but more general in nature (time vs. telling the time) - a 1975 coursebook series entitled 'Strategies' was the first to espouse this type of syllabus - based on David Wilkins' "What people want to do through language is more important than the mastery of language as an unapplied system" Ex. headings in this syllabus would be: duration; location; degree; direction; the past; age; ability; possibility; permission; degree [Cambridge]

question

circumlocution

answer

a strategy for describing or defining a word instead of saying it - language learners can use this when they don't know a word Ex. Explain who uses it, why it's used, or where ("a chef uses it to flip an egg") Use a synonym or antonym ("it means really small") Use a more general category word ("It's a medium-sized, round red fruit.")

question

discursive essay

answer

a piece of formal writing that thoroughly investigates an argument by offering two opposing perspectives - a practical method of establishing the writer's opinion on a topic and persuading others of one's stance by exploring the reasons why each view may or may not be valid -the author usually maintains a calm and neutral stance throughout the text to establish an unbiased and informative argument Ex. Introduction: clearly states the topic and explains why it is important Body: arguments and logic for both sides Conclusion: establish personal stance on the argument and explain why

question

functional exponent

answer

a language item which is used to realise a particular feature of discourse [Cambridge] - a phrase which shows the purpose of the speaker Ex. "Let's..." This phrase is one way to make a suggestion.

question

tense

answer

a grammatical category which is used to indicate the time at which an action happens by changing the form of the finite verb [Cambridge] Ex. English has two: past and present, e.g. he walked and he walks [Cambridge]

question

minimal pair

answer

two words which differ from each other in pronunciation by only one phoneme [Cambridge] Ex. met, mat; pin, bin

question

product writing (product approach)

answer

an approach to developing learners' writing skills that is informed by the belief that creating a written text is purely a matter of imitating elements that are provided in a model [Cambridge]

question

idiom

answer

(fixed / semi-fixed) expression / phrase / groups of words / lexical unit / word sequence in which the meaning is not literal / cannot be deduced from its individual words [Cambridge] - normally colloquial / informal - can be viewed as a loose term to include other chunks such as collocations, phrasal verbs - often taught as one 'chunk' of language without deconstruction to component parts Ex. play it by ear; a dime a dozen; beat around the bush

question

modal auxiliary verbs

answer

auxiliary verbs which express the mood / attitude / modify the meaning of the main verb (in a sentence) [Cambridge] - don't conjugate/inflect like normal verbs - express functions like possibility, obligation, ability and prediction - positioned before the main verb (in a sentence) - always followed by a bare infinitive Ex. must, can, could, will, would, may, might, shall, should

question

direct method

answer

a method in which grammar rules are not taught / only the target language is used in the classroom / translation is avoided at all costs [Cambridge] - use of L1 not permitted - teachers must be native speakers or have native-like proficiency pure inductive approach - emerged in late 19th century in Germany and France as part of a reform/reaction to Grammar-Translation - no tolerance of error - vocabulary taught through realia, pictures, dialogues, demonstration, synonyms, antonyms, definitions to convey meaning - writing and reading taught only after focus on speaking and listening - only everyday vocabulary and sentences were taught - small, intensive classes of T-S question and answer exchanges built up oral communication skills - new teaching points introduced orally - adopted by Foreign Service Institute of the U.S. State Department in 2012 Ex. Berlitz Method / Situational Language Teaching / Callan method / teacher - learner Q & A in L2 / extended teacher - learner conversation in L2 [Cambridge]

question

parataxis

answer

the placing of clauses or phrases one after another independently, without words to indicate coordination or subordination Ex. I came, I saw, I conquered; Tell me, how are you?

question

total physical response (TPR)

answer

a methodology in which learners respond to instructions/ language with action in order to mediate/reinforce learning [Cambridge] - developed by James Asher, a U.S. Psych professor. - principle: L2 learning is like L1 learning. Ls should only speak L2 after a silent period/when they are ready. Three hypotheses based on his observations of children: 1. language is learned primarily by listening (and silently responding to commands) 2. language learning must engage the right hemisphere of the brain 3. learning language should not involve any stress - conversational dialogues are delayed until after about 120 hours of instruction - an example of the comprehension approach: a means of quickly recognizing meaning in the language being learned, and of passively learning the structure of the language itself. - grammar is not taught explicitly, but can be learned from the language input Ex. stand up, turn around, walk to the door, open the door, shut the door, turn around, walk to your chair, turn around, sit down.

question

hedge

answer

a mitigating word or phrase used to lessen the impact of an utterance - more polite, softens the blow, or avoids the appearance of bragging Ex. There might just be a few *insignificant* problems we need to address. (adjective) The party was *somewhat* spoiled by the return of the parents. (adverb) *I'm not an expert but* you might want to try restarting your computer. (clause) That's false, *isn't it*. (tag question clause)

question

lexical verbs (aka full verbs or main verbs)

answer

all verbs except auxiliary verbs - typically express an action or a state - in contrast, auxiliary verbs express grammatical meaning

question

information gap activity

answer

a classroom activity in which learners have different information and need to exchange the information / communicate in order to complete the / an activity [Cambridge] - associated with communicative approaches - provides opportunities for negotiation of meaning and use of repair or clarification strategies Ex. a jigsaw reading; describing different pictures to each other [Cambridge] (to find the differences between two almost similar pictures) Ex. partners have different diaries/schedules and have to organize a time and date to meet each other

question

substitution

answer

the replacing of a noun phrase or a clause by a single word in order to avoid repetition or to make a text more cohesive [Cambridge]

question

collocation

answer

Two or more words that co-occur in a language more often than would be expected by chance. The more often words occur together, the stronger this is. It can be a result of grammatical rules or simply usage. [Cambridge] Ex. depend on / high frequency / bitterly disappointed / completely agree [Cambridge]

question

order of acquisition

answer

The order in which grammar / language items are thought to be acquired. There may be a natural, predictable order for at least some morphemes/language items, which is often different from the order in coursebooks. [Cambridge] Ex. irregular past before regular past; third person 's' is late acquired. [Cambridge]

question

deontic

answer

a modality concerned with influencing actions, states, or events (giving permission, advice; obligation, requesting, offering; commanding) - differentiated from epistemic - the same modal can have this or epistemic meaning Ex. Saying "John may go home now" to give John permission to leave. Ex. "Elena should go home. She looks tired."

question

epistemic

answer

describes a modality concerned with the speaker's opinion about the truth of a statement (probability) and the way doubts, certainties and guesses are communicated - differentiated from deontic - the same modal can have this or deontic meaning, depending on the context Ex. Saying "John may go home" to say I'm uncertain about whether or not John is going home. Ex. "Pema must be home. Look there's her car." Ex. "Eckhart can't be home yet. His flight doesn't arrive until 9 o'clock."

question

connected speech

answer

the way that speech sounds are produced as part of a continuous sequence rather than in isolation - features: liaison, intrusion, catenation, elision, assimilation, gemination etc.

question

scaffolding

answer

instructional techniques and support used to move students progressively toward stronger understanding, competence and independence in the learning process Ex. disappearing dialogues

question

code-switching

answer

the practice of alternating between two or more languages or varieties of language in conversation by speakers who are bi/multi-lingual - characteristic of ESL societies Ex. (within an utterance) It's six thirty en la mañana, honey. (sequential utterances) What time are we leaving? Ya son las nueve.

question

ELF

answer

stands for English as a Lingua Franca - the use of the English language as a common means of communication for speakers of different first languages - English is a unique and unprecedented lingua franca because of its global spread, highly diverse nature, interactions which include native speakers and the fact that native speakers are outnumbered by non-native speakers - differentiated from English as a Foreign Language (EFL) by its use in intercultural communication rather than formally by its reference to native-speaker norms

question

predicate adjective

answer

an adjective that follows a linking verb and modifies (i.e., refers back to) the subject of the linking verb differentiated from an attributive adjective Ex. The shoes look *expensive*.

question

attributive adjective

answer

an adjective that usually comes before the noun it modifies without a linking verb differentiated from a predicate adjective Ex. The *expensive* shoes...

question

test-teach-test (TTT)

answer

a lesson shape/ approach to teaching in which learners: 1. complete a task or activity without help from the teacher 2. based on the problems seen, the teacher plans and presents the target language 3. learners do another task to practice the new language -more learner-centered than PPP as content is diagnosed throughout the lesson, not pre-planned by T -allows Ls to notice the gap in their knowledge

question

Presentation-Practice-Production (PPP)

answer

a traditional ELT lesson shape that involves three main stages: 1. Teacher deductively explains the language 2. Students do controlled output 3. Students do a freer output, often in a communicative way - focuses on MFP before using the language - scaffolded framework benefits: helps Ls notice features of language; good starter lesson shape for novice Ts criticisms: teacher-centered; linear; requires Ts to package language in to bite-sized units, which misrepresents the complexity of language; doesn't reflect the nature of language or learning; disabling not enabling

question

head (aka header)

answer

a noun, noun phrase or whole clause placed at the front of what we say that is usually followed by a pronoun which in turn refers back to this - helps listeners to understand more easily what we are referring to - common in speaking, but not in writing - differentiated from tail Ex. *Anna, David's sister*, she's going to New York for her birthday. *That big house*, is it where the doctor lives?

question

tail

answer

Noun or noun phrase that occurs at the end of what we say, refers back to a pronoun and gives more information about it - helps a listener to understand more easily what we are referring to - common in speaking, but very uncommon in writing - differentiated from header/head Ex. They're not cheap to buy, *cars in Singapore*. She's a really good marathon runner, *Alice*.

question

interlanguage

answer

the current version of a language studied by a not-yet-proficient language learner - can fossilize or cease developing in any of its developmental stages if the learners don't have the opportunity to improve - claimed to be shaped by several factors: * L1-transfer * overgeneralization of L2 language patterns * previous learning strategies * strategies of L2 acquisition (i.e. simplification) * L2 communication strategies (i.e. circumlocution)

question

affordance

answer

a term borrowed from ecology to describe the language learning opportunities that exist in the learner's linguistic environment [Thornbury] - a leaf is food for some creatures, shade for others, or building material for still others. - this is a key principle in Dogme where the teacher's role is to optimize language learning through directing attention to emergent language Ex. a S happens to use a lexical chunk that wasn't part of the lesson. The T puts in on the board, checks comprehension and drills it to help other Ss know it too.

question

pedagogy

answer

the academic discipline that deals with the theory and practice of education and how best to teach

question

Silent Way

answer

a humanistic language learning method created by Egyptian, Caleb Gattegno, based on the principle that Ls remember best when they discover, participate and create rather than repeat - teachers remain mostly quiet -sound-color chart used to teach pronunciation, which is fundamental -structural syllabus -Cuisenaire rods

question

subjunctive

answer

a verb form used for sentences that do not describe known objective facts, but rather opinions, beliefs, intentions, or desires -contrasts with the indicative mood - rare; "linguistic fossil" according to Michael Lewis in The English Verb - usually only occurs in very formal styles -not very visible in English except in mandative "that" clauses; lexical items learned as a whole and "If I/he/she it *were*..." - between 70% and 80% of all cases are with *were* Ex. It is necessary that he *see* a doctor. God *bless* you.; So be it! If I *were* rich...

question

behaviorism

answer

the theory that viewed learning as a matter of habit formation, where habits are formed when the learner's responses to external stimuli are positively reinforced [Cambridge] - a theory of psychology in the first half of the twentieth century which led to theories of learning, based on how an external stimulus causes a response, a change in behavior - associated with Skinner, Pavlov, imitation, practice, reinforcement and praise - led to Audio-lingualism Ex. pattern drills with positive feedback from the teacher to correct answers [Cambridge]

question

Audio-lingualism (aka the Audio-lingual method)

answer

a method of language teaching where the emphasis is on learning grammatical and phonological structures, especially for speaking and listening - based on Skinner behaviorism (stimulus -> response -> reinforcement) so there is a lot of mechanical repetition. - grew out of the direct method but didn't forbid L1, allowed teachers who weren't at native-like proficiency and focused more on grammar structures than vocabulary - was developed in the 50s and 60s to address some of the perceived weaknesses of the direct method - T-centered - stayed at sentence level without real-life context - grammar learned through memorization and inductively forming analogies, not explicit instruction - fell from favor in the late sixties/early seventies due to Chomsky's attack that language is not imitative but creative based on abstract rules. However, some principles of it (i.e. drills) are still widely used today - was more common in the U.S. and often involved laboratories Ex. Intensive oral drills of basic sentence patterns: T: There's a cup on the table ... repeat Ss: There's a cup on the table T: Spoon Ss: There's a spoon on the table

question

alveolar plosive

answer

a consonant sound made by a sudden release of air from between the tongue and the alveolar / tooth ridge [Cambridge] Can be voiced (lenis /d/) or unvoiced (fortis /t/) Ex. /t/ or /d/

question

eclecticism

answer

selecting activities/techniques/procedures for classroom use from a range of different methods/methodologies/approaches [Cambridge] - typical of current practice, usually in a principled way - could be in response to learner needs, teaching context or language items taught Ex. pattern practice drills in a TBL lesson [Cambridge]

question

determiner

answer

- a word, such as a quantifier or an article, that pre-modifies a noun in some way, e.g. we don't have *much* time, we bought *a* car [Cambridge] a grammatical unit/class of word which precedes a noun (phrase) and limits/affects the meaning of/modifies/defines the noun (phrase) [Cambridge] - they tell us whether the noun phrase is specific or general - proper nouns do not normally take these - can be used to make texts cohesive / helps with referencing Ex. There are different classes (which limit the noun in different ways) such as: quantifiers (*most* people) articles (*the* government) demonstratives (*this* car) possessives (*my* house) numerals (*one* book) interrogatives (*Which* restaurant did you go to?)

question

impact

answer

the effects and consequences assessment has on test takers, the educational system and society - can be minimized by providing comprehensive, useful and transparent information Ex. the results of tests are used to make important decisions which can affect test takers' lives

question

practicality

answer

the extent to which an examination is workable in terms of the resources necessary to produce and administer it in its intended context -an exam that has this does not place an unreasonable demand on available resources Ex. short assessments have more of this since they don't take as long to mark, but it's often at the expense of validity and reliability

question

clause structure

answer

can contain five elements: subject, verb, object, complement and adjunct

question

neuro-linguistic programming (NLP)

answer

an approach to communication, personal development, and psychotherapy created in the U.S. in the 1970s that claims there is a connection between neurological processes, language and behavioral patterns learned through experience, and that these can be changed to achieve specific goals in life -says we use several primary representational systems to experience the world, which can be explained by the acronym VAKOG: visual, auditory, kinesthetic, olfactory and gustatory. -has since been overwhelmingly discredited scientifically

question

lexical approach

answer

says that language learning consists not of vocabulary and grammar but of multi-word, prefabricated chunks [Michael Lewis, 1990s] - "language consists of grammaticalized lexis, not lexicalized grammar" (Lewis, 1993, p. 34) -instruction focuses on fixed and semi-fixed expressions, collocations and idioms that occur frequently in dialogues and texts Ex. Teaching "see you later"; "might as well"; "I'll see what I can do"; "I'll be back in a minute" instead of individual vocabulary words

question

non-defining relative clause

answer

a clause that follows the noun it modifies and adds extra, non-essential information - must have a relative pronoun ('who' [not that] for people, 'which' for things and 'whose' for possessives) - the subject becomes a relative pronoun - has commas around it (helpful to think of them as parentheses) - doesn't cause a problem with the sentence if it's removed - relative pronoun acts as the subject or object of the clause - pronunciation - said as an aside, with a pause, a bit faster than the rest of the sentence and different intonation Ex. The twins, *who are only three years old*, are running towards their mother.

question

defining relative clause

answer

a clause that contains essential information - no commas - 'who' and 'that' are interchangeable for people (unlike with non-defining clauses) and can be omitted if there's a subject after - 'which' and 'that' are interchangeable (formal) and can be left out (informal, used in speaking) if there's a subject after it - whose for possessives - pronunciation - spoken as rest of sentence, not as an aside Ex. The croissants *that they sell in the bakery near me* are the best in the world!

question

copular verb

answer

a special kind of verb used to join an adjective or noun complement to a subject - expresses either that the subject and its complement denote the same thing or that the subject has the property denoted by its complement Ex. be, appear, seem, look, sound, smell, taste, feel, become, get, grow, go, turn, stay, remain, keep Ex. Matt *is* my boyfriend. The leaves *are turning* yellow.

question

adjective

answer

describes or modifies a noun - can go before a noun or after a copular verb - often end in the following suffixes: able, ible, ate, ite, ant, ent, less, ful, ive, ous, ic, y - some end in -ed or -ing like past and continuous verbs, but aren't verbs: boring/bored; exciting/excited - ed is about what the subject feels (a temporary state) and can only be used for animate beings - ing are a description of what something is like, it's quality (a permanent state) - comparative adj + than; superlative the + adj Order: general before specific (i.e. a new polka dot dress) opinions before facts (a beautiful, old, stone house) (opinion, size, age, shape, color, origin, material, use) gradable and nongradable (can't say very unique or very married or very boiling

question

face validity

answer

the extent to which a test *subjectively* "looks valid" to test takers and other observers as covering the concept it purports to measure. -contrasted with content and construct validity

question

content validity (aka logical validity)

answer

the extent to which a test measures all facets of a given construct, according to subject experts - contrasted with construct and face validity

question

construct validity

answer

the degree to which a test measures what it claims, or purports, to be measuring -contrasted with face and content validity

question

grammar translation method

answer

a language teaching method popular from the 1840s to the 1940s involving memorizing grammar rules and vocabulary and translating sentences into and out of the target language - stayed at level of sentence (not longer texts) in early stages - reading and writing are the major focus (not much time spent on speaking or listening) - emphasis on accuracy and high standards in translation - grammar taught deductively (presentation -> practice) - Ss L1 is medium of instruction, so this requires bilingual teachers -criticized for having no theory or pedagogical explanation behind it

question

natural approach

answer

a language learning approach first used in the 19th century that attempted to mirror the processes of learning a first language. Resurrected by Tracy Terrell, California Spanish teacher, in the 1970s and in a 1983 book with Stephen Krashen (which gave this method theoretical validity) Characteristics: - as much comprehensible input as possible must be presented - anything that helps comprehension is important (i.e. visual aids) - focus is on listening, reading and meaningful communication (not form) - speaking should be allowed to emerge, so Ls are not forced to speak until they are ready - to lower affective filter, should be interesting so Ss are relaxed - S output should be clear but doesn't need to be accurate grammatically - no explicit grammar instruction - Ss are rarely corrected - spoken form is taught before the written form - a lot of teacher talk - seems to have become absorbed into what are generally known as humanistic teaching practices and whole language learning

question

deductive approach

answer

explicit instruction in which the T gives the Ss a new concept, explains it, and then has the students practice using the concept - pros: viable option when dealing with highly motivated students, teaching a particularly difficult concept, or for preparing students for exams; many Ss expect this - cons: teaches grammar in an isolated way; little attention is paid to meaning; practice is often mechanical

question

inductive approach

answer

describes a technique in which the T presents Ss with many examples of a concept without explaining it and instead asks the students to notice the grammar rule/pattern/concept - aka guided discovery

question

Suggestopedia (now Desuggestopedia)

answer

- a humanistic, "designer" language learning approach developed in the 1970s by Bulgarian psychotherapist and educator, Georgi Lozanov, based on the principle that learning can be accelerated by working on the conscious and subconscious at the same time. - materials: dialogues, translations, vocabulary lists, music, comfortable chairs - 30 day course; four hours a day; six days a week; 10 units; 150 vocab per unit - T reads material dramatically as music is played - Ss sing songs, do role plays and play games while T acts like a consultant - Ss spontaneously speak and interact in the target language without interruption or correction - T & Ss discuss text, T answers questions - Ss encouraged to create new combinations based on given dialogue

question

community language learning (CLL)

answer

- a humanistic language learning method based on the principles that the whole learner (feelings and knowledge) must be involved in the learning process and that learning is a social process - created in the 1970s by an American, Charles Curran - community is emphasized - based on the Counseling-approach in which the teacher acts as a counselor and a paraphraser, while the learner is seen as a client and collaborator. - Materials: tape recorder, transcriptions of conversations, scripts (no syllabus or textbook). - Ss work together to develop what aspects of a language they would like to learn. - group engages in spontaneous conversation with bilingual teacher as facilitator and "knower" who stands outside circle of students and helps the Ss say what they want to say by translating, suggesting or amending the Ss utterances. - Afterward, T helps Ss reflect on how they felt about the activities

question

Dogme

answer

a communicative approach (also considered a methodology and a movement) to language teaching that encourages instruction without coursebooks and focuses instead on conversational communication among learners and teacher [Thornbury] - argues that the "stuff" that emerges in the classroom outside of our plan is more helpful and memorable to learners

question

task-based language teaching (TBLT)

answer

a branch of CLT that focuses on the use of authentic language and on asking students to do meaningful work using the target language [Prabhu, Long, Pica and East] - typically three stages: pre-task -> task cycle -> language focus Ex. conducting an interview

question

communicative language teaching (CLT)

answer

an approach to language teaching that emphasizes real, meaningful, contextualized interaction as both the means and ultimate goal of study - originally called 'the communicative approach' -rose to prominence in the 1970s and early 80s in line with the progressivism trend (i.e. active learning is more effective than passive learning) - major shift in emphasis away from teaching language systems (grammar, lexis, pronunciation) in isolation (linguistic competence) and towards teaching how they are used in real communication (communicative competence) - taught functions (agreeing / disagreeing / inviting / requesting etc.) alongside grammar - comprehensible (not native-like) pronunciation is sought - has become a generalized umbrella term used to describe learning sequences which aim to improve the Ss' ability to communicate Features: - (any teaching practice that helps students develop their communicative competence in an authentic context with authentic materials is deemed an acceptable and beneficial form of instruction) - pair and group work requiring negotiation and cooperation between learners - fluency-based activities that encourage learners to develop their confidence - role-plays in which students practice and develop language functions - judicious use of grammar and pronunciation-focused activities.

question

situational language teaching

answer

- a language teaching method developed by British applied linguists from the 1930s to the 1960s that aimed to ensure a practical command of the four basic skills of a language through introducing and practicing new language structures situationally - focus on accuracy in both pronunciation and grammar, ability to respond quickly and accurately in speech situations and an automatic control of basic structures and sentence patterns -was an extension of the earlier oral approach - material taught orally before presented in written form - target language is language of classroom - practice basic structures in meaningful situation-based activities - essential general service vocabulary is covered - simple grammar taught before complex - reading and writing taught after sufficient lexis and grammar are established - tightly organized lessons dependent upon a textbook and visual aids -language learning is habit-formation (behaviorist view) -mistakes are bad and should be avoided, as they make bad habits Ex. situational presentation of new sentence patterns; drills

question

multiple intelligences

answer

a theory developed in the 1980s and 1990s by American, Howard Gardener, that people have many types of intelligence and that Ts must acknowledge and accommodate these in Ls - he opposed labeling people with just one but said all people have all of these while one is usually more pronounced - Musical/rhythmical - Verbal/linguistic - Visual/spatial - Bodily/kinaesthetic - Logical/mathematical - Intrapersonal - Interpersonal - Naturalistic - Existential -is often connected with learning styles and has been discredited by some who say its effectiveness in education is not based on any solid research

question

adverb

answer

word or phrase that describes or modifies the meaning of an adjective, verb, or adverb *Types*: *Manner* - often end in -ly (slowly, briefly) - but not all do...Ex. 'well' and 'fast' - can be tricky for Ls (some can be either adj or adv - i.e. She spins fast or She's fast. *Frequency* Ex. sometimes, usually, often, always, never -usually go immediately before main verb (after the auxiliary) - some can move around and come at the beginning or end of a clause like "sometimes" or "occasionally" *Degree* Ex. very (It's very blue); so; amazingly *Time and place* Ex: here, there, everywhere, yesterday, today, upstairs, in the bathroom, on the right, where you left it - includes relative times such as currently, recently, just, soon - also: still, already, yet

question

zero article

answer

refers to a noun not being preceded by a definite or indefinite article -used with plural and uncountable nouns (I love music) -before countries, towns, streets, languages and single mountains (They speak Mandarin in China) -before some places and forms of transport (at home, by car) -exclamations (What delicious food!)

question

aspect

answer

this term indicates, how in a verb phrase, the speaker or writer sees an event (representing, for example, degree of completeness or duration) regardless of the time of the event itself [Cambridge] - a grammatical category denoted by a verb that expresses how an action, event, or state extends over time (duration, completion, repetition and connection to the time of speaking) - there are two in English: the progressive and the perfect

question

World Englishes

answer

the different emerging, localized or indigenized varieties of English and English-based creoles, especially ones that have developed in territories influenced by the United Kingdom or the United States.

question

text

answer

(from the Latin texere = to weave) features: - self-contained - well-formed - cohesive - coherent - clear communicative purpose - recognizable type - appropriate to context of use

question

sociolinguistics

answer

study of the effect of society on the way language is used - explains why we speak differently in different social contexts (ex. not cussing in front of grandma) - factors that influence linguistic choices: participants, setting, topic, feelings, content, social distance, status, formality, function (why are they speaking)

question

speech community

answer

a concept in sociolinguistics that describes a distinct group of people who use language in a unique and mutually accepted way among themselves - to be considered part of this, one must have a communicative competence - members will often develop slang or jargon to serve the group's special purposes and priorities Ex. members of a profession with a specialized jargon; distinct social groups like high school students or hip hop fans; even tight-knit groups like families and friends

question

non-finite clause

answer

a dependent or embedded clause that contains a non-finite verb - usually only used in subordinate clauses as we usually understand the time referred to from the context of the main clause - often used when the subject is the same as the subject in the main clause Ex. I had something to eat *before leaving*. *After having spent six hours at the hospital*, they eventually came home. *Dancing in the rain* is fun.

question

automaticity

answer

the ability to take part in real-time interaction without conscious or deliberate effort by drawing on a set of memorized procedures - without these routines, utterances would need to be assembled from scratch, word by word, at the obvious expense of fluency - genuinely communicative tasks containing repetition of formulaic utterances promote this such as 'Find someone who..' and '20 questions'

question

backshift

answer

the changing of a tense in direct speech to a tense further back the past in reported speech Ex. "The sunset *is* beautiful." -> She said the sunset *was* beautiful. Ex. The police said the burglar *got* away. -> The police said the burglar *had gotten* away.

question

zero conditional

answer

a verb form that expresses facts with a condition - when and if are interchangeable - clauses can be reversed - both clauses in present simple or continuous - comma is between clauses if conjunction is at the beginning, not when it's in the middle Ex. When it rains, things get wet. / Things get wet when it rains.

question

first conditional

answer

expresses *likely* situations in the present or future - If/When + present tense...will/can/might/may + bare infinitive - 'when' and 'if' can be switched but meaning changes - can reverse clauses Ex. He'll be so pleased if she comes back.

question

second conditional

answer

expresses unreal, unlikely, imaginary or impossible situations in the present or future - form: if = past simple...would/could/might + bare infinitive - 'If' can't be replaced by 'when' - subjunctive 'were' can be used in 'if' clause - clauses can be reversed Ex. If I won the lottery, I would travel the world.

question

third conditional

answer

used for hypothetical or impossible situations in the past - often used for regrets - form: If + past perfect + would/could/might + have + past participle Ex. If I'd known about his accident, I would have visited him in the hospital.

question

mixed conditional

answer

combines two different types of conditional patterns reffering to different times Ex. If I'd studied harder for my exams, I'd have a better job now (past conditional with a present result)

question

high surrender value

answer

describes content that can be used immediately in a communicative context - this concept is taken from the world of insurance where a policy with this yields a quick return on investment - notional/functional syllabuses provide this since the learner is soon able to use language to communicate - structural syllabuses don't have much of this because it may take a considerable time before the learner has enough grammar to attempt communication Ex. greeting or short shopping exchanges

question

gemination (aka consonant elongation)

answer

a feature of connected speech in which two identical consonant sounds occurring adjacent to each other, one syllable final and the other syllable initial, merge into one longer sound - does not occur with root words like baggage - literally means "twinning" from the Latin root Gemini Ex. cal*m m*an [ˌkɑːmˈmæn]; thi*s s*addle [ðɪsˈsædəl]; lam*pp*ost [ˈlæmp.poʊst]; roo*mm*ate [ˈrum.meɪt]; eve*nn*ess [ˈiːvənnəs]; mi*ss*pell [ˌmɪsˈspel] He look*s s*ad. That i*s s*illy.

question

parallelism

answer

a balance within one or more sentences of similar words, phrases or clauses that have the same grammatical structure - makes sentences easier to process - improves writing style Ex. She likes *dancing*, *singing* and *reading*.

question

assonance

answer

the repetition of vowel sounds to create internal rhyming within phrases or sentences Ex. (poetry) "on a pr*ou*d r*ou*nd cl*ou*d in wh*i*te h*igh* n*igh*t" E. E. Cummings (pop music) "I must conf*ess* that in my q*uest* I f*e*lt depr*essed* and r*est*less" Thin Lizzy (proverbs) "The *ear*ly b*ir*d catches the w*or*m."

question

collective noun

answer

a type of noun which refers to a number of people, animals or things as a group [Cambridge] Ex. family; team; crew

question

intrusion

answer

the insertion of an additional phoneme between certain word boundaries to facilitate smooth linking in connected speech Ex. /j/, /w/ or /r/; do it /duwɪt/

question

meronym

answer

a term which denotes part of something but which is used to refer to the whole of it Ex. "faces" when used to mean people: I see several familiar faces present.

question

gradable adjectives (aka qualitative adjectives)

answer

adjectives that describe qualities that can be measured in degrees - their meaning can be modified (made stronger, weaker, or otherwise altered) by placing one or more adverbs in front of them - can be used in the comparative and superlative Ex. hot, angry, hungry

question

non-gradable adjective

answer

an adjective that cannot be measured in degrees and thus has no comparative or superlative forms Ex. boiling; freezing; married; starving; furious

question

submodifier

answer

a grading adverb used in front of an adjective or another adverb to modify its meaning Ex. very; rather; extremely; fairly

question

pragmatic competence

answer

the ability to understand and use language effectively and appropriately in a given context Ex. "Can you lift that box?" could be a question about your strength or a request

question

coalescence (aka fusion)

answer

the merger of features from two or more segments into a single segment Ex. The tendency of a final /t/ or /d/ followed by an initial /j/ to blend into /ʧ/ or /ʤ/: Got you! /gɒʧu:/; Would you /wʊʤu:/

question

critical pedagogy

answer

a teaching approach that encourages students to question and challenge oppression and injustice - advocates view teaching as an inherently political act and not distinct from social justice issues - goal is social change through an awakening of critical consciousness

question

catenation

answer

a feature of connected speech in which a consonant sound at the end of one word joins with a vowel sound at the beginning of the next word Ex. 'an apple' become 'anapple'

question

differentiation

answer

a term to describe a teaching strategy in which the needs of a mixed ability class are catered for by giving the students tasks according to their individual abilities [Cambridge] Ex. a class is given a gapfill text and some of the students are also given a list of answers to choose from [Cambridge]

question

turn

answer

a time during which a single participant speaks within a typical, orderly arrangement with minimal overlap and gap with another speaker Ex. A: Do you know what I mean? B: Yeah.

question

phonological core

answer

features of pronunciation that are considered essential in order to be understood when speaking ELF - proponents of this challenge the traditional view that the best model for teaching English pronunciation should be a native speaker one, especially one with a received pronunciation (RP) accent

question

cooperative principle

answer

theory regarding how listeners and speakers should act in order to achieve effective communication - introduced by language philosopher, Paul Grice, with four maxims: 1. quality (be truthful) 2. quantity (contribution should not be more than required) 3. relation (relevant) 4. manner (avoid ambiguity; be clear and orderly)

question

input flooding

answer

the practice of providing an abundant number of occurrences of the target language in a text

question

linguistic landscape

answer

the visibility and salience of languages on public and commercial signs in a given territory or region - can reflect the power and status of the linguistic communities inhabiting the territory Ex. signs, street names, graffiti, shop names, advertisements

question

lockstep

answer

a teaching/learning format in which all of the Ss are all doing the same thing at the same time as a group - traditional, T-led/centered Ex. : drilling; TPR; dictation

question

post-method

answer

a shift in language pedagogy away from the single method concept as the main approach to language teaching due to: 1. the failure, on the part of researchers, to find any significant advantage in one method over another 2. the widespread dissatisfaction with the conventional concept of method 3. concern that methods serve the dominant power structures in society, leading to a de-skilling of the role of teachers, and greater institutional control over classroom practice - rather than subscribe to a single set of procedures, teachers adapt their approach in accordance with local, contextual factors

question

native-speakerism

answer

the chauvinistic belief that native English speakers represent ideals of both language and language teaching methodology - coined by Adrian Holliday - includes the adoption of native-speaker models as the most desirable standards of accuracy as well as the dominance of native speaker "experts" at international, national and regional conferences

question

postmodern method

answer

an idea for a dynamic, self-organizing, jointly constructed learning community in which the focus is on doing things and interpreting the experience of those actions [Thornbury] - a major objective is for Ls to acquire new ways of articulating experiences and ideas - the boundaries between the classroom, the school, the society, and the world are permeable - knowledge of language and its use is sought by teacher and learners together (Breen) - the coursebook/syllabus is very much a *modernist* phenomenon in that learning is linear and knowledge is unitary, stable, objective and disinterested

question

Pecha Kucha

answer

a presentation format in which 20 slides are shown for 20 seconds each (6 minutes and 40 seconds in total) - Japanese for "chit chat" - invented in 2003 by owners of a Tokyo architecture firm - keeps presentations concise and fast-paced - allows for many speakers in one event (typically 8 to 14) - in ELT can use to help Ss develop fluency practice or focus on various presentation skills

question

infinitive of purpose

answer

the use of the "to" infinitive form of a verb in answer to the implied question "why?" - can only be used if the doer of the action expressed by the infinitive is the same as the subject of the main clause - 'in order' and 'so as' can be used before this for emphasis in more formal styles: Ex. I bought a pen and some paper *to write* a note. In order *to attract* a wider audience, we need to rethink our marketing strategy.

question

rhotic /r/

answer

an /r/ that gets pronounced in all positions - the English dialects of Scotland, Ireland, and most of the United States and Canada use this - Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and most dialects of England don't use this except when /r/ is before a vowel. Ex. hard /ˈhɑːrd/ and butter /ˈbʌtər/ include this whereas /ˈhɑːd/ and /ˈbʌtə/ do not

question

theme and rheme

answer

a term that describes: a. the "point of departure" of an utterance that typically expresses known information carried over from a previous sentence b. the rest of the sentence constitutes new information (end-weight) - aka topic and comment Ex. I was born in Glasgow. Glasgow is the largest city in Scotland.

question

finite verb

answer

a verb form that has a subject and can function as the root of an independent clause - contains grammatical information such as person, number, tense, aspect and mood. - differentiated from non-finite verb Ex. She *dances*.

question

formal schema

answer

knowledge towards the language, conventions, and rhetorical structures of different types of text - involves orthography, syntax, cohesion, and text structure - differentiated from content schema

question

content schema

answer

knowledge relative to the content area and cultural knowledge of a text - differentiated from formal schema

question

active voice

answer

a form or set of forms of a verb in which the subject is typically the person or thing performing the action and which can take a direct object - expresses the main verb's agent

Delta Module 1 Terminology – Flashcards

Unlock all answers in this set

Haven't found what you were looking for?

Search for samples, answers to your questions and flashcards