Cultural Anthropology: Chapter 1, 2, 3, 7 – Flashcards
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development of anthropology
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-began 2500 ya by Greek historian Herodotus from journeys -Khaldun wrote universal history -recent field of inquiry in Western civ; 1886 U Penn -wasn't studied until recently; now practiced everywhere
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development of anthropology: in western civ
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-so long due to limit of technology (no way to travel) -but people were not ignorant to cultures (in Bible) -invention of magnetic compass: 500 ya ships from Europe (imperialism) to extend trade and politics, initially label others "savage" but learn to accept them
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anthropological perspectives
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1) holistic: parts of culture must be seen in broadest content to understand interconnections & interdependence of biological & cultural aspects of humans -understand how hard facts (anatomy) relate to cultural practices -focus on nonwestern culture; all humans must be studied (anthro is not uniform liberal politics because varied in all beliefs) 2) ethnocentrism: believe that ones own culture is proper one; need to avoid (culture-bound: don't have exposure & experience) -challenge findings of other scientists
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Anthropology & It's Fields
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1) physical (biological) anthro 2) archaeology 3) linguistic anthro 4) cultural anthro -all gather info -> analyze data -> explain similarities (culture practices) and differences (cultural universals) among humans across time and space -applied anthropology (5th field): use anthropological method to solve practical problems; first use in public health movement (medical anthropology: use cultural and physical anthropology to understand relationship between health & cultural behaviors)
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physical (biological) anthropology
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-focus on humans are biological organisms -traditionally study evolution, adaptation, growth & development (how environment impacts growth/variation in physical appearance)/ today study molecular anthropology (genes) -different fields: paleoanthropology (study of origin of humans/evolution), primatology (study of living/fossil primates), forensic anthropology (study of skeletal for legal purposes)
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4 fields: cultural anthropology
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study of patterns of human behavior, thought, and feelings -humans produce culture: society's shared and socially transmitted ideas and values that generate behavior (ethno - = culture) -two main components: 1) ethnography (participant observation): description of a culture based on fieldwork (on-location research) (one study) 2) ethnology: comparison of cultures (final conclusion once you finish research; many studies)
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4 fields: linguistic anthropology
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study of human languages -allows history to be transmitted -linguistic relativity: linguistic diversity in differences of sound/grammar AND differences in ways of looking at the world (eg. no word for future/past = no perception of time); argued that there is a universal biological basis -provides: 1) description (how sentence is formed), 2) history (change over time), 3) study in social setting; eg. discourse: extended communication on a subject (social factors effect how one uses their language) -number in world is declining; work with tribes oral language to turn into written
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4 fields: archaeology
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studies human cultures through recovery and analysis of material remains and environmental data (eg. pots, tools, bones) -prehistoric: do not have written records -subspecialties: bioarchaeology (human), ethnobotany (plants), zoo archaeology (animal remains)
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archaeology: cultural resource management (CRM)
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branch of archaeology tied to government policies for protection of cultural resources -preserve important aspects of a cultures historic and prehistoric heritage; must survey lands -required for any construction project funded by US government -contract archaeology: state legislation sponsors archaeological work
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anthropology, science, and the humanities
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-most humane science and scientific humanity -cannot fully understand another culture by observing it; must experience it (participant observation) -an empirical social science: based on observations or information taken in through sense and verify by others instead of using intuition -need imagination (consider the unlikely) and skepticism (being realistic) to understand -use hypothesis and theory to study relationships & discover unexpected facts -doctrine: assertion of opinion or belief freely handed down by authority as true or indisputable
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fieldwork
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being fully immersed in another culture (community = laboratory) -immerse in data as much as possible (to notice small details that may be overlooked) -use social participation & personal observation in the community -reflexivity: check own bias and assumptions as they work -need background info to make sure researchers conclusions are accurate
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comparative method
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-end product of research: statement about people that understands and explains their culture; allows for more narrow hypothesis -cross-cultural research: use global sample to discover whether hypothesis to explain a culture is universally applicable
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question of ethics
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ethics ensure research does not harm groups studied -comunicate in advance with planned study and obtain informed consent (formal recorded agreement to participate in research; must translate if diff language done through communication not signature); use pseudonyms: don't use real name of people being studied -American Anthropological Association has code of ethics that must be followed -have special obligations to those they study, those who fund research, and other anthropologists who rely on research
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globalization
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worldwide interconnectedness from global movements of natural resources, trade goods, human labor, finance capital, information, and infectious disease -erosion of traditional cultures
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anthropology
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study of humanity through space (different locations) and time -comparative discipline; seek what makes people different/have in common -concerned with explanation of reality -single quotes: human labeled (eg. race) -anthropological perspective: understanding of interactions of factors (social, biological, material) that shape human thought and behavior
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culture
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shared & socially transmitted ideas, values, and perceptions that inform and are reflected in people's behavior -shared by members of a society -it exists because it provides a design to help people survive; balance between self-interests of individuals and needs of whole society -blueprint: structure that can be filled in -no one group is independent; all interdependent on one another (trade products)
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history of culture
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-first definition from edward tyler in 1871 "complex whole of knowledge, belief, art, law, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society" -new definitions; distinguish behavior and ideas because its not just about behavior, its the ideas that generate the behavior
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characteristics of culture
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1) it is learned 2) it is shared 3) it is based on symbols 4) it is integrated (parts function together as whole) 5) it is dynamic (constantly change)
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culture is learned
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born with biological ability (desire for order) to acquire culture but learn it through enculturation: how culture is passed on through generations and individuals become members -learned not inherited -begins at conception -learn socially appropriate ways to satisfy basic needs -each generation learns from the one before -learned behavior is always shown in primates (in addition to intellectual behavior)
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culture is shared
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-common denominator of a society; can predict what someone will do -society: organized group of interdependent people who generally share territory, language, and culture and who act together for collective survival and well-being (can't have culture without society and no society without culture; not true for all species) -differences in own culture eg. age (when do you become an adult) roles of men and women (gender: sex is biological but gender is a social construct; 1/3 of babies aren't completely male/female but dr.'s alter)
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culture is shared: subculture
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distinctive ideas, values, and behavior patterns by a group within a larger society, but share common standards with larger society -different occupational (labor) groups, social class, ethnic groups from other societies -ethnic group: publicly identify as a distinct group; share origin, language, customs (eg. amish, north american indians) -ethnicity: ideas held by an ethnic group
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culture is shared: pluralism/multi-ethnic
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-pluralistic society: two or more ethnic groups are politically organized into one territorial state but maintain cultural differences -eg) uyghur - turkish speaking muslims in china -can make it difficult to communicate/lots of misunderstandings
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culture is based on symbols
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symbol: a sign, sound, emblem, or other thing that represents something else -arbitrary: acquire specific meanings when people agree on usage -most important symbol is language; transports culture to following generations eg) ekiuka: translates to HIV & banana eating pathogens
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culture is integrated
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-culture is a system of distinctive parts that function together as an integrated whole (changes in one part affects another) -three types of cultural features 1) social structure: social organization; (rule-governed relationship that hold societies together eg. families, power relations) 2) infrastructure: economic base 3) super structure: society's shared sense of identity and worldview 4) the environment
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culture is dynamic
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culture must be flexible; when one element inside or outside changes, entire system tries to adjust (strict cultures will not last, but liquid cultures will lose distinctive character)
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functions of culture
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1) production/distribution of necessary goods/services 2) social structure for reproduction & mutual support (biological continuity) 3) pass on knowledge and enculturate new members to become functioning adults 4) facilitate interaction 5) ways to avoid or resolve conflicts in group/with outsiders 6) maintain order 7) emotional/psychological: predictability (eg. certain ideas about afterlife) -cultures various parts must be consistent with one another
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culture and adaptation
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all animals face adaptation: gradual process where organisms adjust to conditions of locality where they live -natural selection: adapt biologically as frequency of anatomical/physiological features increase in population -cultural adaptation: ideas, technologies, and activities that allow to survive and even thrive in an environment (humans depend on; we can't grow a coat, but we can make one); we can live anywhere & we're so successful we're dangering other species; humans do not react to the environment as given; they perceive it (different people see it as cold, etc.)
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culture and adaptation: maladaptive
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-some cultural practices are maladaptive (create problems) eg. toxic air from industrial practices & obesity from fast food -relativity of adaptation: can be adaptive but also maladaptive (eg. food-foraging people's garbage disposal is ok in low density but can result in health hazards) -can be adaptive in short run but maladaptive over time (destroying land for farm land = loss of top soil)
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culture and change
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-culture, environment & language are constantly changing -cultures must be flexible to be adaptive -change can bring bad results (eg. nomads increased size of herds led to overgrazing and erosion) -change can be driven by capitalism; fashion trend show interplay of infrastructure, social structure, and superstructure: unisex clothing = diminishing gender differences in Western labor market and in division of labor around the world
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culture & the individual
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-to balance individuals self interest with needs of society as a whole, society offers rewards for adherence to culturally prescribed standards (usually social approval) -scapegoat: personal needs are not met before the group needs
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ethnocentrism and the evaluation of cultures
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-in most cultures the name for one's own society translates to "true human beings" and call outsiders "barbarians" -cultural relativism: one must suspend judgement of other people's practices in order to understand them (no premature judgements; wait until you have full understanding of culture and then make informed judgements) -anthropologists do not rank cultures; instead understand them (examine each culture on its own terms; decide if it satisfies needs and expectations of people in it: nutritional status, incidence of violence, demographic structure, stability and tranquility of life)
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ethnography research history: early history
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-American anthros focused on Native Indian and Eskimos (internal colonies: indigenous groups surrounded by larger society) -focus on "primitive" societies (life ways similar to prehistoric ancestors); where little/no info was known -focus on "endangered societies" that would disappear by "civilized" nations -after 1960: established code of ethics -new focus: documenting dying/changing cultures (caused by globalization and assimilation: forced to act like more powerful culture)
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ethnography research history: salvage ethnography/ urgent anthropology
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-ethnographic research that documents endangered cultures -sought to reconstruct abandoned traditional lifeways and preserve culture (result of western domination; violence and extinction of culture)
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ethnography research history: acculturation studies
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acculturation: often disruptive process of cultural change in traditional societies as they come in contact with more powerful state societies -local indigenous cultures are made inferior and forced to adopt ways of dominant society -led to applied anthropology -first one was by Mead: worked with Omaha indians pre & post contact
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ethnography research history: applied anthropology
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use of anthropological knowledge & methods to solve practical problems in communities confronting new challenges -help communities with economic, social, political changes
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ethnography research history: studying cultures at a distant
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-national character studies: to discover personality traits or psychological profiles shared by the majority in societies -useful in WWII: Mead studied "culture at a distance": analysis of newspaper, literature, photographs, and films (con: media bias); info used for propaganda and psycho warfare
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ethnography research history: studying contemporary state societies
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-understanding human relations, ideas, and behavior depends on knowledge of all cultures and peoples, including complex industrial societies -worked in own countries in various places (factories, farms, suburban)
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ethnography research history: peasants
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the largest social category in our species -halfway between modern and traditional foragers (lower class, farm) -practical and significant because unrest is widespread
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ethnography research history: advocacy anthropology and studying up
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-advocacy anthropology: research that is community based and politically involved -help countries adjust to new circumstances or become advocates for peasants and ethnic minorities in order to help them (social justice, human rights, preservation of culture) -study up: call upon anthropologists to focus on Western elite
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ethnography research history: globalization and multi-sited ethnography
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-globalscape: worldwide interconnected landscape with multiple intertwining and overlapping peoples and cultures on the move -diasporic population: living and working far from homeland (consequenece of globalization) -multi-sited ethnography: study people and culture embedded in larger structures of a globalizing world; follow people, objects, etc. as they move through interrelated transnational situations and locations -cyberethnography: ethnographic studies of online "imagined communities"
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ethnographic research methods
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-ethnographic fieldwork: extended on-location research to gather info on a society's customary ideas, etc. through participation observation in its collective social life -research is done by anthropologists who have done work in other cultures (non bias); consider culture as a whole despite focus on one topic (hollistic view) 1) site selection & research question 2) preparatory research 3) participant observation (ethnographic techniques: acceptance, participant observation, key consultants) 4) data gathering (surveys, interviewing, mapping, photography & filming)
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ethnographic research: site selection & research question & preparatory research
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1) where to go? (usually in foreign country) 2) question/problem to study (can take preliminary trip) 3) advance planning: obtain funding and securing permission from community to be studied 4) preparatory research: study info (written, visual, sound), learn language, etc.
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ethnographic research: ethnographic techniques
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-must socially and psychologically adapt to strange community 1) acceptance 2) participant observation (MOST important) 3) key consultants (informants): members of society being studied who provide info to help researchers understand meaning of what they are observing (fieldworkers thank with cash, goods, services) -need to bring: notebook, pen, camera, sound/video recorder
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ethnographic research: data gathering (ethnographic techniques)
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1) quantitative data: measurable, statistical information 2) qualitative data: non statistical information; most important because it captures essence of culture -gather data by: formal and informal interviewing, mapping, recording sounds and images, genealogical data, and surveys
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ethnographic research: data gathering: interviewing
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-informal interview: unstructured & open-ended conversation in every day life -formal interview: structured (prepared) question/answer session carefully notated as it occurs -two types of questions: open ended and closed -eliciting device: draws out individuals to share info (eg. join into a game)
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challenges of ethnographic fieldwork
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1) social acceptance 2) political tension 3) gender, age, ideology, religion, ethnicity, and skin color 4) subjectivity and reflexivity 5) validation
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challenges of ethnographic fieldwork: social acceptance
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-culture shock & loneliness -feeling ignorant & awkward -success depends on mutual goodwill and ability to develop friendships -can be adopted into networks of kinship relations -physical challenges: adjusting to food/hygiene/climate, must be alert of conversations relevant to research
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challenges of ethnographic fieldwork: political tension
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-caught in political rivalries & trying to be neutral -can be seen as a spying government authority -must win trust that allows people to be themselves and share unmasked version of their culture
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challenges of ethnographic fieldwork: subjectivity (bias) & reflexivity;
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to describe culture you need 3 types of data: 1) theory: people's own understanding of their culture and rules they share 2) belief: extent to which people believe they are observing those rules 3) practice: behavior that can be directly observed (what anthropologist sees happening) -reflexivity: self-monitor and check their own bias as they work
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challenges of ethnographic fieldwork: validation
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-can't replicate experiments like natural science; access to sites is limited, funding, etc. -changing factors = what could be observed in a certain context at one time cannot be observed at others -because of this, anthropologists have heavy responsibility for reporting correctly
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Completing an Ethnography
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piece together all that has been gathered to describe the culture -describe -> interpet -> theory -describes: history, community today, natural environment, settlement patterns, subsistence practices, kinship relations, marriage and sexuality, economic exchanges, etc. (can be shown with photos, maps, diagrams) 1) digital ethnography: document research on recordings or film; allows to share info easily 2) ethnohistory: study of cultures of recent past through oral histories
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ethnology
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branch of cultural anthropology that makes cross-cultural comparisons and develops theories why certain differences/similarities occur between groups -theory: explanation supported by reliable data; an agreed understanding (vs. dogma/doctrine: assertion of opinion handed down by an authority as true) -no theory is true: vary degrees of probability (provide fact-based evidence = explanation of observed reality); can change/improve -scientific theory depends on demonstrable evidence & repeated testing
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ethnology & the comparative method
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-cross-cultural researcher depends on evidence gathered by other scholars as well as their own -Human Relations Area Files (HRAF): a vast collection of cross-indexed data catalogued by cultural characteristics and geographic location (one phenomenon cannot support an entire theory) -can test hypothesis using old data
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ethical responsibilities in anthropological research
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-scientia potentia est: anthropological knowledge may have far reaching (possibly negative) consequences for those being studied
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timeline of cultural adaptation
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1) food foraging: oldest, most universal (mobility, hunt, gather; circle: share everything, no hierarchy, no leader, everyone works together) 2) 10,000 YA: domestication of plants and animals 3) horticulture (cultivating plants) led to permanent settlement, but pastoralism requires mobility to seek pasture & water (triangle; hierarchy emerges; farmers feed middle class) 4) 5,000 YA: cities develop 5) industrial revolution: economy of labor/animals to machines (bad: environmental pollution & global warming)
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the unit of adaptation
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-includes both organisms and environment (dynamic interaction) -how humans meet basic needs: 1) constantly make cultural adaptations: skills and knowledge to survive in ecosystem (natural environment and all the organisms living in it) 2) finding efficient methods to get food, water, shelter
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adaptation in cultural evolution
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-humans use culture to adapt to the environment; Amyara has wide chest to live in high altitude of Andes, Bali gathers in water temples to plan when they will flood their crops -cultures can evolve (change over time; positive or negative) OR progress (positive change over time; moving towards perfection) -convergent evolution: development of similar cultural adaptations to similar environmental conditions by different cultures -parallel evolution: development of similar cultural adaptations to similar environments by people whose past culture were similar -periods of major change are usually followed by stability -ethnocentric trap: we see all change as progress and thus don't realize they may cause damage (destroying environment) -Camache indians traded horses with Europeans but Europeans took over them
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adaptation in cultural evolution: culture areas
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a geographic region where many societies follow similar patterns of life (cultural traits) -same environment and resources
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adaptation in cultural evolution: culture core
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cultural features that are fundamental in the society's way of making its living (food-producing technique, knowledge of resources, work arrangements) -pattern of subsistence is also determined by 1) social structure/political organization 2) environmental factors 3) technological advancements -compromises culture's food habits: e.g.) kosher
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modes of subsistence
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cultural infrastructure compatible with the available natural resources (subsistence = ways to get food) -requires technology to use the resources -requires work arrangements 1) food foraging: the oldest and most universal (tool making; migratory) 2) food producing societies: domestication of plants and animals 3) industrial food production: machines
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modes of subsistence: food foraging
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hunting, fishing, and gathering wild plant foods -live in marginal areas (arctic tundra, deserts); don't choose to, it is the best way for them to survive 1) mobility (nomadic): only move as needed; availability of water is the most crucial factor 2) small group size (less than 100, usually below carrying capacity) 3) flexible divisions of labor by gender 4) food sharing; get unlimited plants, set amount of meat 5) egalitarianism; equality is favored (no social status: everyone carries/owns bare minimum) 6) communal property; resources are first come first serve 7) rarity of warfare
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modes of subsistence: food foraging: characteristics: flexible divisions of labor by gender
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-men: hunting, butchering, processing hard/tough materials -women: collect & process plants, domestic (breast feeding, pregnancy) -these roles are not biologically determined -divison of labor is far less rigid than other societies (all societies have divisions of labor by gender)
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modes of subsistence: food producing societies
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-10,000 years ago in SW Asia; Neolithic (New Stone) Age: stone-based technologies and depended on domesticated plants/animals (change was accidental; less secure & more work than foraging) -built permanent dwelling to sow, weed, protect and harvest crops -horiculture (producing food in gardens) & agriculture (producing food in farms) & mixed farming (crop growing & animal breeding) & pastoralism (herding grazing animals) (food foragers do not produce)
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modes of subsistence: food producing societies: horticulture
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cultivation of crops through simple hand tools (digging sticks, hoes) -do not fertilize; stay in same plot (variety of plants) for a few years -grow more than amount for subsistence; used for feasts and exchange -slash and burn cultivation (swidden farming): cut natural vegetation & burn the slash & crops are planted in the ashes
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modes of subsistence: food producing societies: agriculture
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cultivation of food plants in soil prepared and maintained for crop production -use technology; irrigation, fertilizer, plows (fuel-powered tractor in developed countries) -grow grains, tubers (potato), fruits, vegetables -surplus crop cultivation: provide food for own needs & for non producing consumers & specialists (eg. blacksmith) (traded or sold for cash); most substantial -usually governed by political or economic forces -fixed settlements: farming families resided together near their cultivated fields -change from egalitarian to more organized social structure
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modes of subsistence: food producing societies: mixed farming
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-Eurasian and African food-producers would not miss chance to kill wild game, fish, or fowl (grow plants but also breed/raise farm animals) -transhumance: vertical season movement in mountains; up in summer, down in winter (only some move their herds; entire community migrates is pastoralism)
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modes of subsistence: food producing societies: pastoralism
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breeding and managing large herds of domesticated grazing and browsing animals (llama, camels, horse, goat, sheep, cattle) -no permanent homes; follow or drive their herds to new pastures -environments that are too dry, cold, steep, or rocky for farming -trade surplus animals, leather and wool for other necessities (fruit, spice, tea) -Bakhtiari herders in zagros mountains of west Iran; goats and sheep
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modes of subsistence: food producing societies: intensive agriculture
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-intensive agriculture led to urbanization (towns and cities); farmers became craftsmen -new social order: more complex (ranked on control over resources, occupation, gender) = more inequality -change in human culture: writing, trade intensified, monumental buildings built, new central government that dictated rules -took over surrounding rural farms; these farmers became peasants: their surpluses were transferred to dominant rulers who gave it to their craftsmen/workers); still stuck in poverty today
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modes of subsistence: industrial food production
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-200 years ago; invention of steam engine in England -began to use biofuels (coals, gas, oil) after steam -increased factory production & transportation -1960s: food production is large-scale, efficient, and cheap -agribusiness (corporate farming): large-scale businesses involved in food production; hurt peasants and small farmers -electronic digital revolution in the late 20th century allows for global marking complex involving interlinked distribution centers -globalscape: US produces chicken and sends parts all over the world
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culture cores
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-Mursi: mixed economy (honey, cattle, corn) -Bahaya: banana famers -Bakhtiara/Basseri: nomadic pastoralists (sheep, goat); Basseri = Il-rah (migratory route) -Bushmen/San/JuHoansi/Tiwi: food foragers
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language (linguistics)
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a system of symbolic communication using sounds and/or gestures (and symbols & rules) that result in meanings based on agreement by a society who shares the language -the sounds and gestures are symbols: represents something in a meaningful way -signals: instinctive sound or gesture has a natural meaning (eg. scream); innate: not learned (cultural universal) -3 branches of study: descriptive linguistics, historical linguistics, and sociolinguistics/ethnolinguistics
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language & culture
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-biological makeup: programmed for language but must learn it -culture is dependent on language: due to amount of knowledge that must be learned by each person from other individuals in order to fully participate in society; enables us to translate concerns/beliefs into symbols that can be understood and interpreted by others -language is the central and most highly developed human system -most important symbol in culture (reflects our culture; ability to communicate & share culture)
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Linguistic Research and the Nature of Language
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-linguistics: study of all aspects of language -no more than 50 sounds in the 6500 languages in the world -discovered that all languages are organized in the same basic way)
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descriptive linguistics
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unravels a language by recording, describing, and analyzing its features; provides a deeper understanding -how to research undocumented language -need a trained ear and understanding of how different speech sounds are produces (phonetics) -phonology, morphology, syntax and grammar
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descriptive linguistics: phonology
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the study of language sounds -phonetics: systematic identification and description of distinctive speech sounds in a language -minimal-pair test: isolate phonemes (smallest units of sound that make a difference in meaning)
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descriptive linguistics: morphology, syntax, and grammar
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-morphology: study of patterns or rules of word formation; mark out morphemes (smallest units of sound that carry meaning) -syntax: patterns or rules by which morphemes are arranged into phrases/sentences -grammar: the entire formal structure of a language (includes morphology and syntax)
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historical linguistics
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how languages change -decipher "dead" languages -new words in modern languages (eg. twerking) -relationships among languages: 1) language family: a group of languages descended from a single ancestral language 2) Linguistic divergence: the development of different languages from a single ancestral language -glottochronology: estimate when divergence occurred (compares core vocabulary: most basic and long-lasting words; change slowest)
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historical linguistics: process of linguistic divergence (why languages change)
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-languages are always changing! 1) selective borrowing from one language 2) need for a new vocabulary
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historical linguistics: language of low and revival
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-the most powerful force of change is the domination of one society over another -more and more languages are going extinct (due to globalization) -linguistic nationalism: ethnic minorities attempt to proclaim independence by purging their language of foreign terms
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Sociolinguistics
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study of language and society 1) Gender -gendered speech: distinct male and female speech patterns that vary by culture 2) Social Dialects: varying forms of a language that reflect particular regions, occupations, or social classes -code switching; changing from one mode of speech (language or dialect) to another as the situation demands
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Social and Cultural Settings: Ethnolinguistics
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study of language and culture 1) Linguistic Relativity: distinctions encoded in one language are unique to that language (eg. different words for different types of snow in the arctic) 2) Linguistic determinism: language shapes the way in which we view and think about the world around us (Sapir-whorf hypothesis; Hopi language in Arizona)
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language versatility
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-in many societies, people speak two or three languages because they were taught them as children -receptive (passive) bilingualism: ability to comprehend two languages but speak in only one
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gesture-call system
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"key" speech: provides listeners with appropriate frame for interpreting what speaker is saying 1) Body Language gesture: facial expressions and body postures/motions that convey messages -kinetics: system of notating and analyzing body language -proxemics: cross-cultural study of people's perception and use of space 2) Paralanguage: voice effects that accompany language and convey meaning (eg. groaning, giggling)
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tonal languages
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a language where sound pitch of spoke word is essential to its meaning and pronunciation -70% of languages -non-tonal language (like English) can use tone to convey attitude
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telecommunication
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-people have found ways to expand their acoustic range to sound information beyond their loudest vocal reach (eg. whistled speech: exchange of whistled words; going extinct) -in a globalizing world: -illiteracy condemns disadvantaged people to ongoing poverty; the UN established literacy as a human right -have reached remote villages; cell phones make communication possible without literacy (voice calls)
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the origin of language
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-cultural groups usually say homelands as state of origin and that the first humans spoke their language -30k to 125k YA, Neanderthals had features necessary for speech -displacement: referring to things and events removed in time and space (something apes can do that is distinctive to human language) -spoken language may have emerged from gestural -benefits of speaking: in dark, don't have to stop what you're doing
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from speech to writing
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-writing system: a set of visible or tactile signs used to represent units of a language in a systematic way (eg. hieroglyphics) -alphabet: a series of symbols representing the sounds of a language arranged in traditional order (invented 4,000 YA by Semitic-speakers in Egypt; the Greeks changed it 2800 YA to suit their language)
