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Crime definition

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Human conduct in violation of the criminal laws of the federal government, a state, or a local jurisdiction that has the power to make such laws

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4 ways to define crime

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1) Legalistic 2) Political 3) Sociological 4) Psychological

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Deviance

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Human behavior that violates social norms (expected behavior by society)

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Deviance vs. Crime

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~Related concepts but not the same: - Deviance and Crime (ex=theft, drugs) -Deviance but not Crime (going against social norms) -Crime but not Deviance (ex=marijuana, speeding)

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2 Perspectives on Crime

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1) Social Problems Perspective 2) Social Responsibility Perspective

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Social Problems Perspective

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Crime is the result of social problems and the breakdown of social institutions

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Social Responsibility Perspective

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-Individuals are responsible for their own behavior -Crime is the result of individuals choosing crime over other forms of behavior

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3 Ways to view Criminology

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-Disciplinary: body of knowledge, many disciplines -Causative: underlying causes of crime -Scientific: application of scientific method

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Criminology definition

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An interdisciplinary profession built around the scientific study of crime and criminal behavior, including their forms, causes, legal aspects, and control

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Evidence-Based Practice

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-A form of contemporary criminology that makes use of rigorous social scientific techniques, especially randomized, controlled experiments and the systematic review of research results -Importance of science -Research methods are scientific

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Why EBP important

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-Declining resources -Accountability -Expansion of knowledge and technology

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Theory Defined

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-A series of interrelated propositions that attempts to describe, explain, predict, and ultimately control some class of events

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Sutherland's 9 Principles of Differential Association

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1) Criminal behavior is learned 2) Criminal behavior is learned in interaction with others in a process of communication 3) The principle part of the learning of criminal behavior occurs within intimate personal groups

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How do Theories Help Us

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-Theories provide explanations for patterns we observe in data -Theories link one study with another -Theories supply frameworks within which concepts and variables acquire special significance -Theories allow us to interpret the larger meaning of our findings for ourselves and for others

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Research defined

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The use of standardized, systematic procedures in the search for knowledge

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Research Steps

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-Problem identification -Development of a research design -Choice of data-collection techniques -Handling problems in data collection -Review of findings

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5 Data-Collection Techniques

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-Survey Research -Case Studies -Participant Observation -Self-Reporting -Secondary Analysis

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Survey Research Technique

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Research using a social science data-gathering technique that involves the use of questionnaires

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Case Studies Technique

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In-depth investigations into individual cases

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Participant Observation Technique

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A strategy in data gathering in which the researcher observes a group by participating, to varying degrees, in the activities of the group

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Self-Reporting Technique

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Asking individuals to record and report secretive or sensitive behaviors

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2 Statistics to Review Findings

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-Descriptive Statistics -Inferential Statistics

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Descriptive Statistics

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-Statistics that describe the findings in a sample of the population -Uses measures of central tendency --mean --median --mode

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Inferential Statistics

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-Statistics that identify the degree to which we can apply findings in a sample to the population from which that sample was drawn (infer about entire population) -Test of significance: a statistical technique to provide researchers with confidence that their results are, in fact, true and not the result of sampling error

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Crime Description Before Crime Explanation

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-First must be able to describe crimes- what criminal behavior "looks like", what crimes are committed, how much, by whom -Then try to explain why this behavior occurs

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Crime Typology

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A classification of crimes along a particular dimension, such as legal categories, offender motivation, victim behavior, or characteristics of individual offenders

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Violent Crime Typologies

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-Murder -Rape -Robbery -Aggravated Assault

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Murder

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The unlawful killing of a human being in which the element of malice aforethought was present

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Rape

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The carnal knowledge of a female forcibly and against her will, regardless of age (statutory rape not included)

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Robbery

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The felonious and forcible taking of property from the care, custody, or control of a person or persons by violence or putting the person in fear against their will

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Aggravated Assault

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The unlawful attack or attempt to attack through force or violence to do physical injury to another

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2 Sources of the Collection of Crime Data

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-Uniform Crime Reporting Program (UCR) -National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS)

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Uniform Crime Reporting Program

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-Crimes reported to the police -Summary counts of reported crimes/ Summary Reporting System --number of crimes/offenses reported --number of arrests --number of crimes/offenses cleared by arrest -Provide details at the incident level --offense --offender --victim --property involved

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National Crime Victimization Survey

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-"Dark figure of crime"= crimes that are not reported to the police and remain unknown to officials -Nationally representative sample that's used to make inferences about the population -Use of sampling techniques to ensure that every household has an equal chance of probability of being selected for the survey (known chance or probability)

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Serial Murder

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A type of criminal homicide that involves the killing of several victims in three or more separate events

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Workplace Violence

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the crime of murder, rape, robbery, or assault committed against someone who is at work or on duty

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Hate Crime

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- A criminal offense in which the motive is hatred, bias, or prejudice against another individual or group of individuals - Based on actual or perceived race, color, religion, national origin, ethnicity, gender, or sexual orientation

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Stalking

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A course of conduct directed at a specific person that involves -unwanted repeated visual or physical proximity -nonconsensual communication -verbal, written, or implied threats - a combination of the above that would cause a reasonable person fear

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Violent and Non-Violent Crime Trends

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-seeing a national downward trend in the number of crimes being committed each year

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Non-Violent Crime Typologies

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-Burglary -Larceny -Motor Vehicle Theft -Arson

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Burglary

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Any unlawful or attempted forcible entry of a structure to commit a felony or larceny, even though force may not have been used to gain entry

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Larceny

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The unlawful taking of property of another with the intent to deprive them of ownership without the use of force, violence, or fraud

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Motor Vehicle Theft

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The unlawful taking or attempted taking of a motor vehicle

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Arson

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Any willful or malicious burning, or attempt to burn, with or without intent to defraud

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Persistent Thieves

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-Continue to commit property crimes despite no better than ordinary level of success

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Offense Specialization

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-quite limited among property offenders -more appropriate description is cafeteria-style offending, which helps understand the varied and unplanned nature of offending (criminals more often generalists or have limited specialization)

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Drug Addiction

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A chronic brain disease characterized by compulsive drug seeking and use despite harmful consequences -Affects areas of the brain that control: -- judgment and decision making -- learning and memory --behavior control

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Commonly Abused Drugs

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-Stimulants -Depressants -Cannabis -Narcotics -Hallucinogens -Anabolic steroids -Inhalants

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Stimulants

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Increase central nervous system activity, resulting in: -higher heart rate -elevated blood pressure -increased mental activity Common stimulants include: --Amphetamine --Cocaine --MDMA --Methamphetamine --Methylphenidate --Nicotine

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Cocaine

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Common effects: - euphoria - intense stimulation - psychic and physical well-being - seemingly boundless energy

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Depressants

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Used legitimately for: - reduction of anxiety - treatment of psychological problems - as mood elevators Illegal users use them to: - produce intoxication - counter the effects of other drugs - treat themselves for drug withdrawal Common depressants include: --Barbiturates --Sedatives --Tranquilizers

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Cannabis

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= marijuana Used illegitimately to induce states of: - euphoria - relaxation - intoxication Current research examines the medical uses of marijuana

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Narcotics

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Used legitimately for: - pain relief - cough suppression Illegal users use them to: - produce drowsiness - produce relaxation Can be toxic when taken in large doses Physical addiction may result in drug dependence Common narcotics include: --Codeine --Heroine --Methadone --Morphine --Opium

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Hallucinogens

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Have no official legitimate use Produce: - hallucinations - perceptual distortions - these "trips" may be pleasurable or frightening Common hallucinogens include: --LSD --Ecstasy --PCP

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Anabolic Steroids

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Used legitimately for: - weight gain - treatment of arthritis, anemia - battle against certain forms of cancer Often considered banned substances in athletics as performance enhancing drugs

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Inhalants

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Highly volatile substances that act as central nervous system depressants Produce: - light-headedness - disturb vision - reduce muscle and reflex control Can be found in: --Fast-drying glues --Nail-polish remover --Lighter fluid -Paint thinner

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Drug-Defined Crime

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A violation of the laws prohibiting or regulating the possession, use, or distribution of illegal drugs

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Drug-Related Crime

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A crime in which drugs contribute to the offense

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Drug Trafficking

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The manufacturing, distributing, dispensing, importing, and/or exporting of a controlled substance or a counterfeit substance

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The Enlightenment

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-Also known as the Age of Reason -A social movement that arose during the 18th century and that built upon ideas like rationality and free will

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Major Principles of Classical Criminology

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-Crime, like any other behavior, is caused by the individual exercise of free will -Humans are rational, so our behavior is the result of free will coupled with rational choice -Pain and pleasure are the two central determinants of human behavior

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4 Main Concepts of Classical Criminology

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-Free will -Rational choice -Pain and Pleasure -Deterrence

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Cesare Beccaria

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-Wrote Essay on Crimes and Punishments -Developed a philosophy of punishment --punishment should be deterrence rather than retribution. In other words, crime prevention is more important than revenge --To be a deterrent, punishment should be -swift -certain -only severe enough to deter: make pain outweigh pleasure

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Modern Beliefs from Beccaria

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-Criminals have control over their behavior -That they choose to commit crimes -That they can be deterred by the threat of punishment

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Jeremy Bentham

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-Wrote Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation -Believed humans are fundamentally rational -Believed criminals would weigh the pain of punishment against the pleasure of crime -Developed Hedonistic Calculus: the belief that people choose behaviors based on the amount of pleasure or pain those behaviors will produce

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Principles of Positivism

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-Acceptance of social determinism: the belief that behavior is caused by forces beyond our control, not our choices -Application of scientific techniques to the study of crime and criminality --measurement --observation --generalization

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Crime vs. Criminality

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-Crime: violation of law -Criminality: a behavioral predisposition that disproportionally favors criminal activity

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Biology and Criminality

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Theories and research of the biological basis of behavior can give us insight into individuals predispositions for criminal behavior - violence - aggression - impulsivity - lack of self-control

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Biological Theories

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-Biological Roots of Human Aggression -Genetics and Crime -Sociobiology -Biosocial and Psychological Criminology

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Phrenology (bio.al roots of aggression)

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-Franz Joseph Gall -The study of the shape of the head to determine anatomical correlates of human behavior -theory never tested but widely accepted at the time

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Atavism (bio.al roots of aggression)

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-Cesare Lombroso -Criminals are throwbacks to earlier stages of human evolution -Lombroso estimated 70% of offenders were "born criminals"

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Somatotyping (bio.al roots of aggression)

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The classification of human beings into types according to body build and other physical characteristics -Endomorph: relaxed and sociable (bigger/fatter body) -Mesomorph: associated with delinquency (middle body) -Ectomorph: restrained and shy (small/thin body) -little support that body type is related to criminality

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Chemical and Environmental Precursors

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-Sugar: high sugar intake may increase hyperactivity and aggressiveness -Allergic reactions to common foods: may cause brain swelling and reduce ability to control impulses -Material diet during pregnancy: may affect IQ and early infant behavior and might determine risk of criminality

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Hormones and Criminality

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Testosterone: primary male sex hormone - high blood testosterone levels are related to increased aggressiveness in men - most studies consistently show this relationship Estrogen: primary female sex hormone - fluctuations in estrogen and serotonin, a "behavior-regulating chemical", may produce aggressive and impulsive behavior Cortisol: - low levels of this hormone are associated with aggression

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Weather and Crime

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Temperature and Criminal Behavior: more violent crime is reported to the police on warm days than on cold days Barometric Pressure and Violent Crime: low pressure may change cerebral blood flow and increase impulsivity

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Chromosomes and the XYY Supermale (genetics and crime)

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-Some males are born with an extra Y chromosome- a "supermale" -XYY men are overrepresented in prisons and mental hospitals -XYY men may commit more crimes overall, but little evidence they commit crimes of greater violence

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Chromosomes and Genetic Mutation (genetics and crime)

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-In 1993, Ropers and Brunner identified a specific gene with links to criminal behavior -This gene produces an enzyme called monoamine oxidase A (MAOA), which helps break down serotonin and noradrenaline in the brain -When this gene is mutated, it fails to produce enough MAOA to break down these chemical transmitters -Brains are therefore overwhelmed with stimuli, resulting in impulsive and criminal behavior

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Behavioral Genetics (genetics and crime)

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Twin studies: -Identical twins, or monozygotic (MZ) -Fraternal twins, or dizygotic (DZ) -if criminal behavior is heritable, we should observe more similar criminal behavior among identical twins than fraternal twins -Data does seem to show somewhat of a correlation

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Male-Female Differences in Criminality (genetics and crime)

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-Women commit far fewer crimes than men -Culture and Criminality --we would predict that as culture varies, so would the involvement of woman in crime --reduction in cultural inhibition of women's behavior --However, women's low participation in crime is stable over time and has been observed in cross-cultural studies -Biology and Crime --One hypothesis is that differences in testosterone is associated with male-female differences in criminality --These differences are moderated by social environment

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Sociobiology

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The systematic study of the biological basis of all social behavior - a branch of evolutionary biology and modern population biology Edward O. Wilson argued that aggression and violence are based on evolutionary concept of territoriality - humans have an evolutionary need for survival and reproduction

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Biosocial Criminology

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A theoretical perspective that sees the interaction between biology and the environment as key to understanding human behavior, including criminality

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Policy Implications of Biological Theories

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>Recommendations: -Pre- and postnatal care and monitor for signs that could increase aggression -Monitoring of children in early stages of development -Neurological exams when needed -More studies of prison population >Potential Benefits -Crime prevention, "right to treatment" policy >Potential Dangers -Crime control that involves excessive measures that violate human rights

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Critiques of Biological Theories

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-Problems defining criminality --"several studies have defined criminality on the basis of a single arrest" -Some twin studies fail to adequately distinguish MZ from DZ twins -- few studies have used biological testing to distinguish -Methodological problems --lack of comparison groups, small sample sizes, biased samples -Lack of generalizability --do findings in other countries apply to US and vice-versa

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