question

mass number

answer

total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus, represented by the letter A

question

atomic number

answer

total number of protons in the nucleus, represented by the letter Z

question

isotope

answer

two or more nuclei of the same element that have different mass numbers

question

binding energy

answer

energy required to overcome proton-proton repulsion and hold the nucleus together

question

parent nucleus

answer

nucleus prior to nuclear decay

question

daughter nucleus

answer

nucleus formed as result of nuclear decay

question

alpha decay

answer

daughter has mass number 4 less than parent, atomic number 2 less than parent

question

beta decay

answer

daughter will always be a different element but will have the same mass number as parent

question

gamma decay

answer

daughter is identical to parent, except it has less energy

question

first-order decay

answer

probability that a nucleus will decay in a given time is constant and independent of the surrounding of the nucleus

question

nuclear fission

answer

when an accelerated particle such as a process when a neutron strikes a target nuclei, the nucleus can split into two or more fragments

question

nuclear fusion

answer

pricess when an accelerated particle is captured by a target nucleus to produce a larger nucleus

question

radius of a nucleus

answer

(1.33?10^(-13) )??A cm

question

Bohr atom

answer

an atom with only one electron

question

energy shells

answer

certain distances away from the nucleus

question

number of electrons

answer

2n^2

question

ground state

answer

configuration in which the electrons are in the lowest available energy levels

question

excited state

answer

configuration in which the electron is not in the lowest available energy level

question

valence electrons

answer

electrons with the largest value of n

question

principle quantum number

answer

n, energy level, ?1

question

secondary quantum number

answer

l, angular momentum, 0-n

question

degenerate

answer

quantum states or configurations that have identical energies

question

magnetic quantum number

answer

m_l, -l to +l including 0

question

s

answer

1 orbital

question

p

answer

3 orbitals

question

d

answer

5 orbitals

question

f

answer

7 orbitals

question

spin quantum number

answer

m_s, +1/2 and -1/2

question

Pauli exclusion principle

answer

no two electrons in the same atom may ever have completely identical quantum numbers (n, l, m_l, m_s)

question

Aufbau principle

answer

to find the correct ground-state electron configuration of an atom, always completely fill all lower-energy orbitals before filling any higher-energy orbitals

question

Hund's rule

answer

when partially filling degenerate orbitals of p, d, and f subshells, always put one electron in each orbital before pairing them up. Also orient unpaired electrons so that their magnetic spins are all aligned in the same direction

question

atomic size trend

answer

increases as one moves down or the left in the periodic table

question

atomic and ionic radii

answer

cation < neutral atom < anion

question

isoelectronic species

answer

two atoms or ions that have the same number of electrons

question

ionization

answer

removal of an electron from a neutral atom

question

endergonic process

answer

requires input of energy

question

first ionization energy

answer

energy that is required to remove a single electron from an isolated gas-phase atom

question

second ionization energy

answer

energy required to remove a second electron from a gas-phase atom

question

ionization energy

answer

increases as one moves up or to the right of the periodic table

question

electron affinity

answer

amount of energy involved in adding a single electron to an isolated gas-phase atom, more negative as you move across a row or up a column

question

exergonic

answer

liberates energy

question

electronegativity

answer

ability of an atom in a molecule to polarize bonding electrons toward itself, increases as one moves up or to the right within the periodic table

question

acidity

answer

increases as one moves down or to the right in the periodic table

question

basicity

answer

increases as one moves up or to the left in the periodic table

question

octet

answer

the eight-electron arrangement in the outer electron shell of the noble-gas atoms

question

cations

answer

positively charged ion

question

anions

answer

negatively charged ion

question

metalloid elements

answer

elements that lie right along the delineation staircase line between metals and non metals

question

Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR)

answer

electron pairs, whether bonding or nonbonding, attempt to move as far apart as possible

question

nonpolar bond

answer

covalent bonds that are fatter at one end than at the other

question

malleability

answer

ability to be hammered into shapes

question

ductility

answer

ability to be drawn into sheets and wires

question

band theory

answer

metal is thought of as a giant molecule in which delocalized molecular orbitals cover the entire structure

question

insulator

answer

solid in which electrons saturate a band and a considerable gap exists between the completely filled band and the next available one

question

semiconductor

answer

has electrical properties that are intermediate between those of metals and insulators; electrical conductivity increases with incresing temperature

question

intrinsic semiconductor

answer

solid in which the band gap is so small that some electrons from the valence band will occupy energy levels in the conduction band

question

extrinsic semiconductor

answer

a substance that is normally an insulator can become semiconducting if small amount of other atoms are introduced intot the lattice, rendering it impure

question

doping

answer

introduction of an impurity

question

n-type conductivity

answer

charge carriers are negative electrons

question

p-type conductivity

answer

charge carriers are positive holes

question

p-n junction

answer

consists of a p-type semiconductor that's in close contact with an n-type semiconductor

question

inversely polarized

answer

if the p-zone is connected to the negative pole of a battery and the n-zone to the positive pole, the electrons are attracted to the (+) pole and the holes to the (-) pole, which is opposite to the normal direction of the displacement of electrons and holes at the juntion

question

directly polarized

answer

if the p-zone is connected to the positive pole, and the n-zone to the negative pole of the battery, the flow of electrons takes place in the normal direction at the junction

question

coordinate covalent bonds

answer

covalent bond that is formed between a transition metal ion and a polar molecule, formed by the donation of a pair of electrons from a polar molecule

question

coordination complex

answer

a molecule that consists of a transition metal ion bonded to polar molecules via coordinate covalent bonds

question

Lewis base

answer

a molecule that donates a pair of electrons to form a covalent bond

question

Lewis acid

answer

a molecule that accepts a pair of electrons to form a covalent bond

question

intermolecular forces

answer

forces that exists between two or more molecules

question

intramolecular forces

answer

forces that hold atoms together to form a molecule

question

Coulomb's law

answer

F=k (Q_1?Q_2)/R^2

F= force of electrostatic interaction, k= Coulomb's constant= 9.0??10?^9 (Nm^2)/C^2 , Q_1=charge of particle #1 (in coulombs), Q_2= charge of particle #2, R= distance between the charges (m); if +, charges repel if - charges attract

question

electron cloud repulsion

answer

prevents atoms from passing right through one another, steric hindrance

question

ionic bond

answer

electrostatic attraction between two ions

question

polar molecules

answer

have a dipole moment, and an asymmetric distribution of electron density

question

dipole forces

answer

interactions between the charged portions of polar molecules

question

hydrogen bond

answer

a strong dipole-dipole interaction involving a H atom covalently bonded to a F, O,or N atom that is attracted to the partial negative charge of another F, O, or N atom

question

London dispersion forces

answer

arise from a momentary non-homogeneous distribution of electrons in an atom

question

instantaneous dipole

answer

when an atom has a slightly positive side and a slightly negative side

question

dispersion force

answer

the attraction between two adjacent, instantaneous, oppositely charged dipoles

question

covalent compound

answer

when the electronegativities of a compound's constituent elements differ by no more than about 1.5 units

question

ionic compound

answer

when the electronegativities of a compound's constituent elements differ by more than about 1.5 units

question

crystal lattice

answer

ions in an ionic compound are arranged in regular pattern

question

unit cell

answer

smallest unit that repeats itself indefinitely in three dimensions

question

crystallorgraphy

answer

branch of chemistry that studies the structure of unit cells

question

cubic

answer

cell edges: a=b=c, cell angles: ?=?=?=90°

question

tetragonal

answer

cell edges: a=b?c, cell angles: ?=?=?=90°

question

hexagonal

answer

cell edges: a=b=c?d, cell angles: ?=?=?=120°, edge d is perpendicular to the plane described by edges a, b, and c

question

rhombohedral

answer

cell edges: a=b=c, cell angles: ?=?=??90°

question

orthorhombic

answer

cell edges: a?b?c, cell angles: ?=?=?=90°

question

monclinic

answer

cell edges: a?b?c, cell angles: ?=?=90° ??90°

question

triclinic

answer

cell edges: a?b?c, cell angles: ?????

question

ionic solids

answer

made of + and - ions arranged in regular arrays; each ion is surrounded by ions of the opposite charge; hard, brittle, and have high melting and boiling points, poor conductors of electricity and heat

question

covalent solids

answer

made of atoms that are held together by very strong covalent bonds; very hard and have high melting points

question

molecular solids

answer

made of neutral molecules, held together by dipole forces or London dispersion forces; soft and are poor conductors of electricity and heat

question

metallic solids

answer

made of one closely packed metal element; very good electricity and heat conductors, can be soft or hard and have variable melting points

question

close-packed structures

answer

substance where atoms pack together as closely as possible

question

tetrahedral hole

answer

four spheres (3 in first layer, in triangular formation, and 1 above) create a regular tetrahedron about a void

question

octahedral hole

answer

hole bound by 6 spheres (3 in the first layer, in triangular formation, and 3 in the second layer, above, also in triangular formation, but offset by 60° with respect to the 3 spheres in the first row)

question

triangular hole

answer

hole between three adjacent speheres in the same layer

question

coordination number (CN)

answer

number of an atom's or ion's closest neighbors within the lattice

question

cohesive energy

answer

difference in energy between free ions and ionic solid

question

lattice energy

answer

sum of the energies of interaction of the ions in a crystal

question

Madelung constant

answer

the coulombic interaction can be evaluated theoretically using compressibility data, represents the effect on the ion of its neighboring ions

question

Born-Haber cycle

answer

calculation of the total energy of a crystal determined by considering all of its formation steps and including a lattice energy contribution

question

K_eq

answer

generic equilibrium constant

question

dynamic equilibrium

answer

individual molecules continue to react; however, there is no net change in the amount of reactants and products

question

K_p

answer

gaseous equilibrium constant

question

K_a

answer

acid equilibrium constant

question

K_b

answer

base equilibrium constant

question

K_sp

answer

dissolution equilibrium constant of ionic solutions

question

Le Chatelier's Principle

answer

chemical systems in dynamic equilibrium will remain in equilibrium indefinitely until acted upon by an outside influence

question

reaction quotient (Q)

answer

value that is obtained if nonequilibrium numbers are plugged into an equilibrium expression

question

autoionization

answer

spontaneous dissociation of water, reversible

question

K_w

answer

dissociation constant for water, 10^-14 M^2 at 25 C

question

Arrhenius

answer

acids produce H+ (aq); bases produce OH- (aq)

question

Lowry-Bronsted

answer

acids are proton donors; bases are proton acceptors

question

amphoteric molecule/ion

answer

can either donate or accept H+ (aq) in response to whatever else is in solution

question

strong acid/base

answer

completely dissociated acid/base

question

strong acids

answer

HCl, HBr, HI, HNO_3, H_2SO_4, HClO_4

question

strong bases

answer

group I hydroxides

question

weak acid/base

answer

acids/bases that partially, reversibly dissociate

question

quadratic equation

answer

(-b±?(b^2-4ac)?^(1/2))/2a

question

conjugate pair

answer

made up of two molecules that have identical molecular formulas, except that one of them has an additional H+, pk_a+pk_b=14 @ 25C

question

conjugate rules

answer

1. the conjugate acid of a strong base is neutral
2. the conjugate base of a strong acid is neutral
3. the conjugate acid of a weak base is an acid
4. the conjugate base of weak acid is a base

question

buffers

answer

minimize a change in pH when additional acid or base is introduced into solution, must consist of a conjugate pair of a weak acid and weak base

question

Henderson-Hasselbalch equation

answer

pH=pK_a+log??[A^- ]/[HA] ?

question

acid-base titration

answer

used to determine:
1. the concentraion of an acid or base
2. whether an unknown acid or base is strong or weak
3. the pK_a of an unknown acid, or pK_b of unknown base

question

titrant

answer

known strong acid or base that is added to an unknown acid or base solution

question

equivalence point

answer

inflection or end point, point during a titration where just enough titrant (in moles) has been added to completely neutralize the subject acid or base

question

half-equivalence point

answer

the point at which enough titrant has been added to neutralize exactly one-half of the original unknown acid or base, point at which equal amounts of the unknown acid or base and its conjugate exist in the solution

question

acid-base iindicator

answer

the conjugate pair of a weak acid or base where each conjugate is a different color, change color at a pH+/-1 of their pK_a

question

alkali metals

answer

Group I, highly reducing, soft and silvery white, crystallize in the body-centered cubic crystal structure, salts soluble in water

question

alkaline-earth metals

answer

Group II, metallic in appearance, crystallize in close-packed, hexagonal close-packed structure, hexagonal and face-centered, face-centered and body-centered structure

question

Group III

answer

oxidation state +3

question

Group IV

answer

oxidation state +4

question

Boron

answer

forms simple trihalides, which are Lewis acids, undergo nucleophilic displacement reaction

question

closoboranes

answer

[B_nH_n]^-

question

nidoboranes

answer

B_nH_n+4

question

arachnoboranes

answer

B_nH_n+6

question

saline carbides

answer

largely ionic solids, formed by the elements of Groups I and II and by aluminum

question

metallic carbides

answer

formed by d and f block elements, electric conductors

question

metalloid carbides

answer

formed by boron and silicon and are covalent solids

question

silicates

answer

compounds that contain metals and the tetrahedral SiO_4^2- structure

question

aluminosilicates

answer

similar to silicates except that aluminum atoms replace some of the silicon atoms

question

allotrope

answer

different elemental forms

question

halogens

answer

Group VII, because of high reactivity, are only found as halides in nature, all nonmetals and diatomic

question

rare gases

answer

least reactive nonmetals

question

interhalogens

answer

compounds containing a halogen-halogen bond

question

transition metals

answer

elements found between Group II and III, recovered as ores or salts, have different oxidation states due to electrons being able to be lost from two different valence shells

question

lanthanides

answer

rare metals, oxidation state generally +3, properties are the result of partially filled f subshells

question

actinides

answer

radioactive elements

question

ligands

answer

coordination complexes formed with good Lewis bases

question

monodentate

answer

ligands that form a single coordination covalent bond

question

chelates

answer

ligands that form more than one bond

question

molecular point groups

answer

describe the geometry/symmetry of coordination complexes

question

crystals field theory

answer

model explaining how the presence of ligands can affect the electron configuration of a the metal atom

question

18 electron rule

answer

a way of gauging the relative stability of a complex

1. assign to the metal its number of valence s and outermost d electrons
2. for the ligands, assign electrons as per the following:
Ligand Electrons donated to M
H, CH3, CH2CH3, CN, OH, CI, NO 1
PR3, NH2, NH3, CO, RCN, ROOR’ 2
Cyclopentadinyl, indenyl 5
Benzene 6
Cyclooctatetraene 8

3.add up both contributions
4.when the organometallic complex has a charge, consider a + charge a - charge as an excess of electrons and add the corresponding number to the total

complexes that have 18 electrons counted tend to be more stable than ones that don't

question

identity (E)

answer

rotation about 360 degrees and yield the same, indistinguishable configuration

question

center of symmetry (i)

answer

a line that divides a molecule into two identical parts,such that every atom through i meets equivalent atoms at a distance equidistant from i

question

rotation axis (C_n)

answer

rotation about 360 degrees/n yields the same configuration

question

mirror plane (?)

answer

reflection through a mirror plane yields the same configuration.

question

rotation-reflection axis (S_n)

answer

some molecules exist such that rotation about an axis, followed by a reflection through a plane perpendicular to the axis, yields the same configuration

question

symmetry operations

answer

when reflections are applied to a molecule and result in a representation that's indistinguishable from the starting configuration

question

molecular point group

answer

the group of all possible symmetry operations that can be performed on molecules of a given configuration

question

Pt. Group: C_1

answer

Element: E

question

Pt. Group: C_2

answer

E, C_2

question

Pt. Group: C_2v

answer

E, C_2, 2?

question

Pt. Group: D_2h

answer

E, 3C_2, 3?, i

question

Pt. Group: D_3h

answer

E, 2C_3, 3C_2, 4?, 2S_3

question

Pt. Group: D_4h

answer

E, 2C_4, 5C_2, i, 2S_4, 5?

question

Pt. Group: T_d
tetrahedral

answer

E, 3C_4, 8C_3, 6?, 6S_4

question

Pt. Group: O_h
octahedral

answer

E, 8C_3, 6C_2, 6C_4, 3C_2, i, 6S_4, 8S_6, 9?

question

pairing energy

answer

energy required to pair up the electrons

question

high spin

answer

when the strength of the crystal field interaction energy is less than the pairing energy

question

low spin

answer

when the crystal field interaction energy is greater than the pairing energy

question

spin-only effective magnetic moment (?_eff)

answer

function of the number of unpaired electrons n, v(n(n+2)) in units of Bohr magnetons

question

Jahn-Teller effect

answer

octahedral and high-spin transition metal complexes often distort to lower symmetry to remove the electronic degeneracy

question

formation of a complex

answer

M^(n+)+ L >ML^(n+)

K_eq=([ML^(n+)])/([M^(n+) ][L])

question

Irving-Williams series

answer

K_eq increases from left to right

Ba^2+ < Sr^2+ < Ca^2+ < Mg^2+ < Mn^2+ < Fe^2+ < Co^2+ < Ni^2+ Zn^2+

question

spectrochemical series

answer

provides an estimate of the ability of incoming ligands to cause the splitting of d orbitals

Br^- < Cl^- < SCN^- < F^- < OH^- < oxalate < H_2O < NH_3 < pyridine < NO_2^- < CN^- < CO

question

ligand substitution

answer

a coordinated ligand is replaced by another one

question

redox reactions

answer

electron transfer processes in which the oxidation state of the metal changes

question

organometallic compound

answer

a substance that contains at least one metal-carbon bond

question

Grignard reagent

answer

Mg + CH_3Br -> CH_3MgBr

question

transmetallation

answer

M + M'R -> MR + M', where M is a metal that is more electropositive than M'

question

hydrometallation

answer

MH + H_2C=CH_2 -> MH_2C-CH_3, in the case of unsymmetrical alkenes, the M group attaches to the less hindered carbon atom, and the smaller H attaches to the most hinder C

question

hapticity (?)

answer

describes organometallic compounds in the d and f groups, the number of atoms of a ligand that are attached to a metal atom

question

toxic organometallic compounds

answer

include organomercury, organotin, organolead, organoarsenic, and organosilicon compounds

question

biomethylation

answer

result of the reaction of methyl carbanions CH_3^- =, from naturally occurring biological agents such as cobalamin, CH_3CoB_12 + Hg^2+ -> CH_3Hg^+ + H_2OCoB_12^+

question

catalysis

answer

cyclic process, introduces new reaction mechanisms , which causes the catalyzed reaction to possess a lower Gibbs free energy of activation than a noncatalyzed reaction

question

catalyst

answer

a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without being consumed

question

homogenous catalysis

answer

catalyst and reagents are present in the same phase

question

heterogeneous catalysis

answer

catalyst catalyst is present in a phase different from that of the reactants, most are solids that are easily separated from the products of the reaction

question

turnover frequency (N)

answer

the ration of the rate of the reaction (v) over the concentration of the catalyst([C] in homogenous catalysis) or the amount of catalyst (in heterogenous catalysis)

question

solid-state chemistry

answer

branch of chemistry concerned with the synthesis, structure, properties, and applications of solid materials

question

defect structure

answer

an important field of solid-state chemistry, defect of some sort greatly influence properties such as electrical conductivity, mechanical strength, corrosion, and chem reactivity

question

point defects

answer

defect at single site

question

extended defects

answer

defects that occur in 1, 2, or 3 dimensions

question

intrinsic defects

answer

defects that are present for strictly thermodynamic reasons, Gibbs free energy is usually lowered by the presence of defects

question

Schottky defect

answer

a point defect in which an ion is missing

question

Frenkel defect

answer

a point defect in which an atom or ion has been displaced to an interstitial site in the lattice

question

extrinsic defects

answer

defects that are not determined by thermodynamics and can be controlled by synthetic conditions and purification of the solid

question

optical properties

answer

ex: color change

question

nonstoichiometric compounds

answer

substances that have variable composition but constant basic structure, formula deviate from whole number ratios

question

superconductors

answer

important class of solids that possess the ability to conduct electricity without resistance

question

bioinorganic chemistry

answer

field of chemistry that studies the function of metals and nonmetals in biological processes

question

cell membranes

answer

membrane barrier that separates a cells interior and exterior

question

carriers

answer

alkali cations that carry molecules across the cell membrane

question

calcium binding proteins

answer

act a receptors for intracellular calcium and structural intermediates for enzyme catalysis

question

enzyme

answer

biological catalyst

question

matalloenzyme

answer

important class of enzymes characterized by the presence of a metal ion that is an essential participant in catalyzed reactions

question

heme proteins

answer

involved in electron transfer reactions, act as oxygen carriers, catalyze a variety of biochemical reactions

question

heme

answer

consists of folded, linked amino acid chains; a macrocyclic porphyrin ring that contains iron as its central metal and whose chemistry is influenced by ring substituents that differ from one type of protein to another

question

sublimation

answer

solid to gas phase

question

ionization

answer

release of an electron

question

dissociation

answer

diatomic to atomic

question

electron affinity

answer

addition of an electron (-)

question

lattice energy

answer

negative for ions coming together

question

sublimation

answer

solid to gas phase

question

ionization

answer

release of an electron

question

dissociation

answer

diatomic to atomic

question

electron affinity

answer

addition of an electron (-)

question

lattice energy

answer

negative for ions coming together

question

organic chemistry

answer

study of carbon, its compounds, and the reactions that they undergo

question

international Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC)

answer

regulates the systematic nomenclature of all compounds

question

saturated hydrocarbon

answer

acyclic, unbranched; univalent radicals

question

enantiomers

answer

nonsuperimposable, chiral mirror images

question

diastereomers

answer

stereoisomers that are not mirror images of each other

question

S_N2 reaction

answer

number 2 indicates both the nucleophile and the substrate are involved in the transition state, so process is biomolecular

bonds are broken heterolytically

question

rate of S_N2 reaction for alkyl halides

answer

consider steric hindrance, as the number of substituents increases, the transition state becomes increasingly crowded, and the rate of reaction decreases, order of increasing rate me > 1 > 2 > 3

question

S_N1 mechanism for the substitution of alkyl halides

answer

rate determining step is ionization of the tertiary or secondary halide to form a carbocation

question

S_N1 reactivity

answer

follows order of carbocation stability, order of increasing stability 3 > 2 > 1 > me

question

E2 mechanism for substitution in alkyl halides

answer

in transition state, the attacking base and the leaving group want to be as far apart as possible (anti positioning). this determines the stereochemistry

Saytzeff's rule applies: the more highly substituted alkenes are more stable than less substituted ones

question

stability of alkenes

answer

depends on the number of substituents on the double bond; most stable is most substituted

question

Hofmann product

answer

the less substituted alkene will predominate

question

Diels-Alder reaction

answer

occurs between a conjugated diene and a dienophile, product always contain 1 more ring than was present in the reactants, stereospecific

question

nucleophilic aromatic substitutions

answer

addition of a nucleophile and formation of a carbanion intermediate, followed by the loss of the halide ion

electron-withdrawing ortho- and para- substituents stabilize the carbanion intermediate more than meta- substituents

in the absence of electron-withdrawing substituents, this reaction is very rare and proceeds through a benzyne intermdiate

question

Saytzeff's rule

answer

when more than one beta carbon bears hydrogen atoms, it is the most substituted carbon that undergoes elimination

question

Friedel-Crafts reaction

answer

example of electrophilic aromatic substitution, in first step a carbocation is generated by reaction of the alkyl halide with aluminum trichloride, the second step is electrophilic attack on benzene to form alkylbenzene

question

carbocation

answer

a positive ion in which a positive charge resides on a carbon atom

question

carbanion

answer

formed after heteroltic cleavage of a bond between a carbon and a less electrnegative atom, resulting carbon has one additional electron, and it is therefore negatively charged

question

free radical

answer

generated by the absorption of light and subsequent homogenous bond dissociation

lack an octet of electrons and are exremely reactive as well as electrophilic

question

carbene intermediate

answer

neutral molecules of general formula R_2C: in which a carbon atom has two sigma bonds and two electrons

question

stability of free radicals

answer

methyl < primary < secondary < tertiary

question

propagation step

answer

in the presence of an alkane, the radical formed will break one of the C-H bonds, one electron remains on the alkane which becomes an alkyl radical and the other electron forms the bond inteh newly formed H-X molecule

the alkyl radical reacts with a halogen molecule to form the halogenated alkane

question

Grignard reagent

answer

RX + Mg -> RMgX

question

synthesis f alkanes

answer

1. reduction of alkyl halides
2.catalyzed hydrogenation of alkenes and alkynes to produce alkanes
3. Corey-House synthesis

question

Corey-House synthesis

answer

(a) 2R-Li +CuI -> (under dry ether) R_2CuLi +Li
(b) R_2CuLi + R'-X -> R'-R + RCu +LiX

question

Major reaction of alkanes

answer

1. thermal dehydrogenation (cracking)
2.combustion
3. halogenation

question

polymerization

answer

produces polymers which are large molecules made of chain-linked starting molecules called monomers or mers

question

synthesis of alkenes

answer

1. dehydrogenation of alkanes
2. dehydration of alcohols (ROH
3. dehyrohalogenation of alyl halides (RX)
4. dehalogenation of vicinal dihalides
5. reduction of alkynes (RC-Cr)

question

reactions of alkenes

answer

1. addition of hydrogen halides (HX) across double bonds (Markovnikov addition)
2. hydration of alkenes to produce alcohols (Markovnikov addition)
3. addition of H_2SO_4 to alkenes to produce alcohols (Markovnikov addition)
4. oxymercuration-demercuration of alkenes to produce alcohols
5. catalytic hydrogenation of alkene to produce alkanes
6. cyclopropanation
7. allylic substitution
8. ozonolysis of alkenes to produce carbonyl groups

question

Markovnikov's rule

answer

addition of a proton to the double bond of an alkene yields a product in which the proton is bonded to the carbon atom that already bears the greater number of hydrogens

question

preparation of alkynes

answer

1. dehyrohalogenation of dihalides
2. alkyl substitution

question

vic-dihalides

answer

halogens on adjacent carbons

question

gem-dihalide

answer

halogen atoms are bound to the same carbon

question

diene

answer

alkene that has two C=C bonds in the formula

question

conjugated

answer

double bonds that are separated by only one single bond, more stable than isolated bonds

question

isolated

answer

double bonds that are separated by more than one single bond

question

synthesis of dienes

answer

1. dehydration of diols
2. dehydrogenation of alkenes
3. dehydrohalogenation of dihalides

question

reactions of dienes

answer

1. addition of hydrogen
2. Diels-Alder reaction

question

use of grignard reagents

answer

1. formaldehyde to primary alcohol
2. aldehyde to secondary alcohol
3. ketone to tertiary alcohol
4. nitrile to ketone
5. carbon dioxide to carboxylic acid

question

primary alcohol

answer

-OH group bound to a carbon that's directly bound to only one other carbon

question

secondary alcohol

answer

-OH group bound to a carbon that's directly bonded to only two other C atoms

question

tertiary alcohol

answer

-OH group bound to a carbon that's directly bonded to three other C atoms

question

alkoxide ion

answer

RO-

produced when a proton of alcohol is removed by a strong base

question

reactions of alcohols

answer

1. oxidation of primary alcohols to carboxylic acids
2. oxidation of primary alcohols to aldehyde
3. oxidation of secondary alcohols to ketones
4. reduction of alcohols to alkanes
5. synthesis of alkyl halides
6. dehydration to alkenes
7. dehydration to ethers
8. tosylation
9. acylation
10. deprotonation to alkoxide

question

thiols

answer

-SH (sulfhydryl) functional group bound to a carbon

question

synthesis of esters

answer

1. Williamson synthesis
2. intermolecular dehydration

question

benzyne

answer

compounds that are forded as reactive intermediates in the reaction of alkyl halides with strong bases

question

enols

answer

compounds that exist as an equilibrium mixture of ketone and alcohol tautomers

question

organometallic compound

answer

consists of a carbon atom covalently bonded to a metal

question

carbohydrates

answer

C_n(H_2O)_m, synthesized by almost all living organisms as a source of metabolic energy

question

monosaccharides

answer

saccharides that cannot be hydrolyzed to simpler structures

question

disaccharide

answer

can be hydrolyzed to yield two monosaccharides

question

aldoses

answer

contain the aldehyde functional group

question

ketoses

answer

contain the ketone group

question

epimer

answer

compounds whose stereochemistry differs at only one carbon

question

polysaccharides

answer

consist of several monosaccharides linked by glycosidic bonds

question

oligosaccharides

answer

contain up to ten monosaccharides

question

ribonucleosides

answer

building blocks of nucleic acids

glycosides of ribofuranose

question

isoelectric point

answer

the pH at which the amino acid exists as an equilibrium mixture of anionic and cationic forms

question

dalton

answer

unit of mass equal to the mass of one hydrogen atom

question

simple proteins

answer

polypeptide assemblies that hydrolyze to their constituent amino acid residues

question

conjugated proteins

answer

incorporate groups such as carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, and various prosthetic groups

question

prosthetic group

answer

active groups

often the site of the main biochemical activity of the protein

question

primary structure of proteins

answer

covalent assembly

amino acid sequence and the presence of disulfide bridges

question

secondary structure of proteins

answer

arragnements adopted by the amino acid sequence

alpha-helix, beta-pleted sheet, random coil

can coexists in the same protein

question

alpha-helix

answer

a polypedtide arrangement in which the carbonyl groups on one turn of the helix hydrogen bond to the hydrogens of the peptide N-H bond of the next turn

question

beta-pleated sheet

answer

a polypeptide arrangement in which the chains line up side by side with the carbonyl groups of one chain hydrogen bonded to the hydrogens of the N-H bond of the adjacent chain

question

random coil

answer

any nonhelical or nonpleated sheet polypeptide arrangement

question

tertiary structure of proteins

answer

the complete three-dimensional conformation of the protein and the folding pattern of its secondary structure

question

quaternary structure of proteins

answer

the "sum total" of the protein assembly, including complexations with ligands, inhibitors, etc

question

physical chemistry

answer

the study of changes is the study of changes in energy and entropy and the rate of change of nonequilibrated systems

question

thermodynamics

answer

study of transformations of various kinds of energies and the exchange of energy between systems and their surroundings

question

system

answer

any part of the universe, any object, and any quality of matter

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state properties

answer

measurable variables

question

surroundings

answer

includes everything around the system

question

boundary

answer

encloses a system, setting it apart from its surroundings

imaginary construct which serves either to (a) completely isolate the system from its surroundings or (b) allow interactions between the system and its surroundings

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