Chemistry 111 Final Exam – Flashcards
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| Chemistry |
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| the scientific discipline that studies the composition, properties, and transformations of matter |
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| Solution |
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| homogeneous mixture of more than one substance; can have gas, liquid, or solid solution |
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| Element |
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| simplest substance that has a distinct chemical identity, cannot be broken down further; pure substance |
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| Compound |
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| consists of 2 or more elements held together by chemical bonds |
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| Homogeneous Mixture |
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| same throughout; example clean air, wine, brass |
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| Heterogeneous Mixture |
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| contains regions that are different in structure and property; example rocks, particles in air |
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| Physical Property |
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| property which can be measured without changing the identity of the substance; example color, odor, density changes of state |
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| Chemical Property |
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| property which describes how a substance changes its identity to form other substances; example burning coal |
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| Intensive Property |
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| does not depend on the amount of the substance present; example color, density |
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| Extensive Property |
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| depends on the amount of substance present; example mass, volume, length |
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| Equivalence Statement |
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| an equation defining units where the two units are set equal |
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| Conversion Factor |
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| a ratio relating the same quantity in two systems of units that is used to convert the units of measurement |
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| Matter |
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| has mass and occupies space |
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| Solid |
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| definite shape, definite volume |
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| Liquid |
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| no definite shape, definite volume |
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| Gas |
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| no definite shape, no definite volume |
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| Pure Substance |
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| Element or compound |
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| Mixture |
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| homogeneous or heterogeneous |
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| Filtration |
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| separation by state |
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| Distillation |
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| separation using boiling points of two substances in the mixture |
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| Chromatography |
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| separation using how well a substance adheres (sticks) to another substance, absorption |
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| Mass |
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| kilogram |
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| Length |
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| meter |
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| Area |
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| meters squared, m2 |
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| Volume |
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| meters cubed, m3 |
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| Time |
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| seconds |
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| Temperature |
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| kelvin |
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| 1 kilogram |
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| 2.205 pounds |
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| 1 inch |
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| 2.54 centimeters |
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| 1 Liter |
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| 1 decimeter cubed, 1 dm3 |
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| 1 Liter |
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| 1.057 quarts |
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| Degree Kelvin |
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| Degree Celcius + 273.15 |
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| Density |
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| mass/volume, g/cm cubed |
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| Atomic Number |
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| the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom of an element |
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| Mass Number |
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| the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of a particular atom |
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| Isotope |
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| atoms of the same element (same number of protons) with different numbers of neutrons in the nucleus |
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| Peta (P) |
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| 1015, 1 Pm = 1x1015m |
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| Tera (T) |
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| 1012, 1 Tm = 1x1012 m |
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| Giga (G) |
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| 109, 1 Gm=1x109 m |
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| Mega (M) |
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| 106, 1Mm = 1x106 m |
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| Kilo (k) |
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| 103, 1 km = 1x103 m |
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| Deci (d) |
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| 10-1, 1 dm = 1x10-1 m |
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| Centi (c) |
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| 10-2, 1 cm = 1x10-2 m |
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| Milli (m) |
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| 10-3, 1 mm = 1x10-3 m |
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| Micro (u) |
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| 10-6, 1 um = 1x10-6 m |
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| Nano (n) |
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| 10-9, 1 nm = 1x10-9 m |
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| Pico (p) |
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| 10-12, 1 pm = 1x10-12 m |
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| Femto (f) |
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| 10-15, 1 fm = 1x10-15 m |
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| Atto (a) |
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| 10-18, 1 am = 1x10-18 m |
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| Zepto (z) |
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| 10-21, 1 zm = 1x10-21 m |
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| Molecular Formula |
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| indicates the active number and kind of atoms in a molecule |
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| Emperical Formula |
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| gives the relative number and kind of atoms in a compound shown as lowest whole number ratio |
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| Structural Formula |
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| gives arrangement of atoms in a compund |
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| Molecule |
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| combination of more than one non-metallic elements |
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| Cation |
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| a positively charged atomic species, missing an electron |
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| Anion |
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| a negatively charged atomic species, an extra electron |
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| Polyatomic Ion |
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| an electrically charged group of two or more atoms |
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| Ionic Bond |
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| force of attraction between oppositely charged ions |
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| Covalent Bond |
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| the attraction involving the sharing of electrons between two nuclei |
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| Oxyanion |
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| polyatomic anions which contain oxygen |
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| Oxidation Number |
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| the apparent charge on an individual atom in a compound or a polyatomic unit |
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| Democritus |
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| invisible particles called "atamos" |
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| Robert Boyle |
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| 1661, definition of element |
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| Joseph Priestly |
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| 1774, isolation of oxygen |
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| Antoine Lavoisier |
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| 1789, law of conservation of mass |
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| Joseph Proust |
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| 1806, law of definite proportions |
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| John Dalton |
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| 1808, postulates of atomic theory and law of multiple proportions |
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| Joseph Gay-Lussac |
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| 1809, determining chemical formulas |
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| Amedeo Avogadro |
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| 1811, equal volumes of gases contain an equal number of particles |
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| Jon-Jakob Berzelius |
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| early 1800s, symbols for elements |
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| Dmitri Mendeleev |
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| 1869, periodic table |
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| Wilhelm Roentgen |
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| 1896, discovered xrays |
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| Henri Becquerel |
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| 1896, proposed concept of radioactivity |
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| J. J. Thomson |
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| 1903, measured charge-to-mass ratio of an electron |
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| Robert Millikan |
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| 1909, oil drop experiment to measure the charge of an electron |
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| Ernest Rutherford |
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| 1911, proved existence of nucleus of the atom |
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| Henry Mosley |
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| 1913, devised the atomic number system |
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| First Postulate |
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| each element is composed of atoms |
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| Second Postulate |
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| atoms of the same element are identcal |
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| Third Postulate |
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| atoms of different elements are different in some fundamental way and have different properties |
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| Fourth Postulate |
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| atoms are neither created or destroyed in chemical reactions |
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| Fifth Postulate |
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| compounds are formed when atoms of more than one element combine |
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| Sixth Postulate |
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| in a compound, the relative numbers and kinds of atoms are constant |
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| First Law of Atomic Theory |
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| law of definite proportions |
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| Second Law of the Atomic Theory |
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| law of conservation of matter |
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| Third Law of the Atomic Theory |
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| law of multiple porportions |
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| Fourth Law of Atomic Theory |
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| avogadro's number |
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| Weight of one 12C atom |
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| 12 atomic mass units (amu) |
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| Electron |
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| -1 unit charge, weighs 5.486x10-4 amu |
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| Proton |
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| +1 charge, weighs 1.0073 amu |
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| Neutron |
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| zero charge, weighs 1.0087 amu |
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| Atom |
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| composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons, consists of a dense core (protons and neutrons) surrounded by an electron cloud |
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| What defines and element? |
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| the number of protons in the nucleus |
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| Neutral Atom |
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| equal number of protons and neutrons |
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| Mass Number |
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| total number of protons and neutrons |
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| Isotope Superscript |
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| mass number |
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| Isotope Subscript |
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| atomic number |
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| Cation |
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| positive ion, has fewer electrons than protons |
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| Anion |
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| negative ion, has more electrons than protons |
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| Angstrom |
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| atomic size, 1 A = 1x10-10 m |
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| Group 1A on the Periodic Table |
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| alkali metals |
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| Group 2A on the Periodic Table |
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| alkaline earth metals |
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| Group 5A on the Periodic Table |
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| pnicogens |
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| Group 6A on the Periodic Table |
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| chalcogens |
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| Group 7A on the Periodic Table |
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| halogens |
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| Group 7A on the Periodic Table |
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| halogens |
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| Group 8A on the Periodic Table |
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| noble gases |
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| Active Metals |
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| groups 1A and 2A |
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| Main Group Elements |
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| groups 1A trhough 8A |
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| Transition Metals |
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| group of 10 columns |
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| Inner Transition Metals |
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| group of 14 columns first series-lanthanides second series-actinides |
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| Metalloids |
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| B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te, and At |
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| Ionic Compounds Consist of |
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| 1) metal + non-metal 2) metal + polyatomic anion 3) polyatomic cation + non-metal 4) polyatomic cation + polyatomic anion |
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| Molecular Compound |
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| atoms held together by covalent bonds, consist of two or more non-metals bonded together, can also result in polyatomic ions |
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| Naming Binary Molecular Compounds |
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| often formed between non-metals, more positive element first then the more negative ending in -ide, use prefixes mono-, di-, tri-... |
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| Naming Ionic Compounds |
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| Cation first then anion |
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| Naming Ionic Compound Cations |
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| can only form one cation-name of element can form more than one cation-romen numerals in parentheses to indicate charge -ous for cation with lower charge, ic for cation with higher charge |
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| Naming Ionic Compound Anions |
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| name of monotomic anion-element with suffix -ide |
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| Naming Polyatmic Anions |
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| -ite, lower amount of oxygen -ate, higher amount of oxygen hypo--ite, fewer oxygen than -ite form per--ate, more oxygens than -ate form |
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| Naming Acids |
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| Derived from the name of the anion replace -ide with -ic and prefix hydro- replace -ate with -ic replace -ite with -ous |
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| Atomic Weight |
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| the weight and average of the masses of the naturally occurring isotopes of an element |
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| Formula Weight |
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| the sum of the atomic weights for all of the atoms that appear in the formula of a compound |
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| Molecular Weight |
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| the sum of the atomic weights for all the atoms in a molecule |
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| Mole |
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| the number of particles in an amount of matter equal to the number of atoms in exactly 12 grams of the Carbon-12 isotope, 1 mole = 6.022x1023 particles |
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| Molar Mass |
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| the mass of one mole of a substance in grams, equal to the formula wieght |
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| Avogadro's Number |
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| the number of 12C atoms in exactly 12 g of 12C, equals 6.022x1023 molecules |
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| Reactant |
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| a starting substance in a chemical reaction |
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| Product |
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| a substance produced in a chemical reaction |
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| Limiting Reagent |
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| the substance which is completely consumed in a chemical reaction and thereby limits the amount of product formed |
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| Actual Yield |
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| the amount of product actually obtained in the laboratory |
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| Theoretical Yield |
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| Quantity of product that is calculated to be produced when all of the limiting reagent has reacted |
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| Percent Yield |
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| actual yield/theoretical yield x 100 |
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| Percent Composition of an Element in a Formula |
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| (# of atoms in a formula)(atomic weight)/formula weight x 100 |
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| Percent Composition of a Unit in a Formula |
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| formula weight of the unit/total formula weight x 100 |
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| Formula Units per Molecule |
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| molecular weight/formula weight |
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| Combination Reaction |
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| A + B --> AB |
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| Decomposition Reaction |
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| AB --> A + B |
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| Single Displacement Reaction |
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| A + BX --> AX + B |
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| Double Displacement Reactions |
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| AX + BY --> AY + BX |
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| Combustion |
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| reactant + O2 --> products |
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| Solvent |
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| the dissolving medium of a solution |
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| Solute |
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| a substance dissolved in a solvent to form a solution |
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| Solution |
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| a mixture of substances that has a uniform composition |
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| Concentration |
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| the quantity of solute present in a given quantity of solvent or solution |
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| Molarity |
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| the concentration of a solution expressed as mole of solute per liter of solution, M |
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| Electrolyte |
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| substances which form ions in aqueous solution (water) |
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| Strong Electrolyte |
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| completely forms ions, falls apart in solution |
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| Non-electrolyte |
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| substance that does not form ions in an aqueous solution |
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| Weak Electrolyte |
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| partially dissociates in aqueous solution |
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| Arrhenius Acid |
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| a substance capable of increasing the H+ ion concentration in an aqueous solution |
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| Arrhenius Base |
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| a substance capable of increasing the OH- ion concentration in an aqueous solution |
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| Neutralization Reaction |
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| a chemical reaction in which excess OH- ions from a base combined with H+ ions from an acid to produce water |
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| Solubility |
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| the maximum amount of a substance that will dissolve at a given temperature |
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| Molecular Equation |
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| a chemical equation showing complete neutral compound formulas of reactants and products |
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| Ionic Equation |
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| a chemical reaction in which all soluble strong electrolytes are expressed as ions in aqueous solution |
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| Spectator Ion |
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| ions which appear in exactly the same form with the same stochiometric coefficient |
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| Net Ionic Equation |
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| ionic equation from which the spectator ions have been removed |
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| Salt |
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| an ionic compound formed by replacing one or more hydrogens of an acid by other cations |
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| Precipitate |
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| solid formed as a product from an aqueous solution |
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| Driving Force |
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| a chemical change which promotes a chemical reaction |
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| Oxidation |
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| Loss of one or more electrons |
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| Reduction |
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| gain of one or more electrons |
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| Activity Series |
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| a ranking of metals in order of their ease of oxidation |
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| Molarity |
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| number of moles of solute/volume of the solution in L, moles/L, intensive property |
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| Dilution |
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| M1 V1 = M2 V2 |
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| Identifying Strong Electrolytes |
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| most salts, most common bases, some acids (HCl, HBr, HI, HNO3, H2SO4, HClO3, and HClO4) |
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| Identifying Weak Electrolytes |
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| most acids and ammonia (base) |
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| Solubility Rule 1 |
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| all nitrates, acetates, chlorates, ammonium and compounds of the group 1A elements are soluble |
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| Solubility Rule 2 |
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| all chlorides, bromides, and iodides are soluble except for the silver, lead, and mercurous compounds |
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| Solubility Rule 3 |
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| all sulfates are soluble except the compounds of silver, mercurous, lead, and heavy alkaline earths (Ca, Ba, Sr) |
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| Solubility Rule 4 |
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| all carbonates, sulfites, and phosphates are insoluble except the compounds formed with the group 1A elements and ammonium |
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| Solubility Rule 5 |
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| all hydroxides are insoluble except compounds of group 1A elements, ammonium, and the heavy alkaline earths (Ca, Ba, Sr) |
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| Solubility Rule 6 |
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| all sulfides are insoluble except groups 1A, 2A, and ammonium |
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| Name the Driving Forces |
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| 1) formation of a precipitate 2) formation of a lowly ionized species (water, weak acids and bases) 3) formation of a gas 4) redox process 5) formation or breakage of one or more covalent bonds |
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| Ease of Oxidation |
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| metals on the left side of the periodic table are more easily oxidized than those to the right |
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| Reducing Agent |
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| reductant, the substance which causes another species to be reduced and is thereby itself oxidized |
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| Oxidizing Agent |
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| oxidant, the substance which causes another species to be oxidized and is thereby itself reduced |
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| Half-reaction |
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| a chemical equation that shows either the reduction or the oxidation process separately |
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| Redox Process |
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| a chemical reaction which occurs by a TRANSFER of electrons from one species to another |
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| Electronic Structure |
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| the arrangement of electrons in an atom |
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| Amplitude |
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| maximum push or pull |
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| Period |
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| the time required for one cycle of a wave to pass a specific point in space, in seconds |
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| Electromagnetic Radiation |
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| the periodic displacement of the electromagnetic field |
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| Frequency |
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| the number of cycles which pass a specific point in space in one second, 1/s |
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| Wavelength |
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| the distance between corresponding point on a wave, in meters |
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| Line Spectrum |
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| a spectrum containing radiation of only specific wavelengths |
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| Spectrum |
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| a separation or categorization of light according to its frequency or wavelength |
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| Photon |
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| a quantum (discrete bundle) of radiant energy (light) |
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| Continuous Spectrum |
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| a spectrum containing radiation distributed over all wavelengths in the range of interest |
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| Ground State |
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| the lowest energy state the electron can be in |
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| Excited State |
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| an energy state of an electron other than the ground state |
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| Electron Density |
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| the probability of finding an electron at a certain point in space |
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| Quantization of Energy |
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| the specific allowed values of the energy |
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| Orbital |
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| a region in space with a high (90%) electron density |
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| Degenerate Orbitals |
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| a situation in which two ore more orbitals have the same energy |
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| Quantum Numbers |
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| values which describe the probable location and energy of an electron in an atom |
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| Node |
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| point of no deflection on a wave |
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| Sir Isaac Newton |
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| 1687, laws of classical physics |
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| Max Planck |
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| 1900, quantization of energy |
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| Albert Einstein |
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| 1905, explained photoelectric effect |
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| Neils Bohr |
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| 1914, model of hydrogen atom |
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| Louis DeBroglie |
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| 1923, duality principle |
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| Wolfgang Pauli |
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| 1924, exclusion principle |
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| Werner Heisenberg |
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| 1926, uncertainty principle |
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| Planck's Quantum Theory |
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| on an atomic scale, matter gains or loses energy in discrete amounts called quanta |
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| Planck's Constant (h) = ? |
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| 6.626x10-34 J sec |
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| 1 J = ? |
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| 1 kg m2/sec2 |
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| Photoelectric Effect |
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| light of a sufficiently high frequency can stimulate emission of electrons from the surface of a metal |
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| Delta E = ? |
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| RH [(1/ni2) - (1/nf2) |
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| RH = ? |
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| 2.18x10-18 J |
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| Delta E for Emission of Energy |
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| negative |
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| Delta E for Absorption of Energy |
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| Positive |
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| Momentum (p) = ? |
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| mass x volume |
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| Wavelength of a Particle |
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| h/mv planck's constant/mass x volume |
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| Duality Principle |
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| both matter and electromagnetic radiation can exhibit wave-like and particle-like behavior |
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| Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle |
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| it is impossible to determine the exact location and momentum of a particle simultaneously |
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| Principle Quantum Number |
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| n = 1,2,3,... (integer values) defines the shell in which the electron is located |
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| Azimuthal (Orbital Angular Momentum) Quantum Number |
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| l = 0, 1, 2, 3,..., n-1 (integer values) defines shape of the orbital, each n has its own set of l values |
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| l = 0 |
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| s orbital |
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| l = 1 |
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| p orbital |
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| l = 2 |
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| d orbital |
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| l = 3 |
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| f orbital |
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| Magnetic Quantum Number |
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| ml = -l, (-l+1), ..., 0, ..., (l-1), ldefines the orientation of the orbital in space, each l has its own set of ml values |
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| Electron Spin Quantum Number |
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| ms = -1/2, +1/2defines the direction of spin of the electron |
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| Valence Electrons |
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| the outermost electrons of an atom, higher in energy than the core electrons, used in bonding |
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| Core Electrons |
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| the electrons that are not in the outermost shell of an atom |
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| Electron Configuration |
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| listing of the populates subshells in an atom (in order of lowest to highest energy) |
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| Effective Nuclear Charge |
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| the net positive charge experienced by an electron in a many-electron atom |
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| Ionization Energy |
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| the energy required to remove an electron from a gaseous atom when the atom is in its ground state |
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| Electron Affinity |
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| the energy change that occurs when and electron is added to a gaseous atom or ion |
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| Electronegativity |
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| the measure of the ability of an atom participating in a bond to pull electron density toward itself |
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| Metallic Character |
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| an extent to which an element exhibits the physical and chemical properties of a metal |
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| Isoelectronic Series |
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| a series of atoms, ions, or molecules having the same number of electron |
