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Social cognition

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. Involves how we: - Interpret - Analyse - Remember - Use information to make judgements

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Person Perception

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. Refers to the mental processes we use to form impressions and draw conclusions about the personal characteristics of other people . These judgments, including first impressions, guide the various types of relationships we develop with others

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Physical appearance

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. An important characteristic of first impressions, especially attractiveness . Many research studies found that we judge as physically attractive are generally perceived as more interesting, warm, mentally healthy, intelligent, independence, outgoing and socially skilled than unattractive people. .

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Halo effect

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. Cognitive bias . One quality of a person influences our beliefs and expectations

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Non-verbal communication

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. Body language - A person's body language is an expression of behaviour that enables us to make quick and often accurate judgements about them . Eye contact - One of the most influential forms of non-verbal communication - Western cultures tend to seek eye contact when they speak to someone - Eye contact maintained most of the time tend to be perceived that a person is honest, straightforward, friendly . Facial expressions - Some seem to be communicated

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Facial expressions studies

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. Ekman used cross- cultural studies to investigate whether facial expressions associated with certain emotions are common among all people, regardless of their background.

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Attribution- Explaining behavior

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. The process by which people explain the causes of their own and other people's behavior . Explanations grouped into two categories - Personal- An explanation due to the characteristics of the person involved, such as personality, ability, attitude, motivation - Situational- An explanation due to factors external to the person involved, such as the actions of another person, some aspect of another person... 3 General biases: - The fundamental attribution error - Actor- observer bias - Self-serving bias

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Fundamental Attribution error

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. The tendency to overestimate the influence of personal factors and underestimate the impact of situational factors on other people's behaviour . Saliency bias: Where we make this error is that the person's behaviour tends to be more conspicuous and therefore noticeable ('salient') than the situation in which it is occurring

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Actor-Observer bias

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. Our tendency to attribute our own behaviour to external or situational causes, yet attribute others' behaviour to internal factors . Sometimes called the 'AOb' discrepancy because there is a mismatch between attribution that is made when the individual is the 'actor' in a given situation and the attribution that is made when the same person is the 'observer' of someone else's behaviour in the same situation

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Self-serving bias

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. When judging ourselves we tend to take the credit for our successes and attribute failures to situational factors . One explanation of this bias is that we are motivated by a desire to protect our self-esteem so we distance ourselves from failure . Been suggested that we may have a need to maintain a positive public image . Less common in collectivist cultures

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Culture and attribution

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Individualist culture: Being an individual and independent is valued and encouraged, and achieving personal goals is considered to be more important than achieving group goals . Collectivist culture:

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Fundamental attribution error

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overestimation

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Attitudes

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. Reactions to these questions reflect your likes and dislikes about objects, people, groups, events, and issues. . Generally called attitude by psychologist . Although, some of our attitudes are not as strong as others, they tend to last. . Our experiences are learned through experience . Can be viewed as ideas that hold about ourselves, others, objects, and experiences . Common used definition: An evaluation a person makes about an object, person, group, event, issue

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Tri component model

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. The most influential and widely used model is called the tri-component, or multi-component, model of attitudes . Proposes that any attitude has three related components

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Affective componenet

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. Emotional actions towards a feeling

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Behavioral Component

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. An attitude refers to the way in which an attitude is expressed through our actions

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Cognitive component

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. An attitude refers to beliefs we have about an object, person, group, event, or issue. - Our beliefs are linked to what we know about the world

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Inconsistencies

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. Believe that there are possibly only affective and cognitive components of attitudes`

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Limitations of tri

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. Inconsistency can occur between the three different components of an attitude appears to the observer as an inconsistency usually between a person's attitude and their actual behaviour . Attitudes and behavior are also frequently linked because it is widely believed that attitudes play a significant role in influencing...

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Strength of an attitude

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.. An attitude that is usually thought about, well-known and easily accessible.

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Accessibility

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. Proposed that attitudes and behavior are more likely to be consistent when the attitude is accessible to the person who holds the attitude.

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Perceived control

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. The belief an individual has that they are free to perform or not perform behaviour linked to an attitude and a belief that they can actually perform that behaviour

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Attitude formation

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. Attitudes are formed through the process of learning

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Classical Conditioning

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. A simple form of learning which occurs through repeated association of two different stimuli or events. .

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Ope rant conditioning

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. A kind of learning which is based on the assumption that we tend to repeat behaviour which has a desirable consequence

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Modelling

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. When someone uses observation of another person's actions and their consequences to guide their future thoughts, feelings or behaviour. The person being observed is referred to as a model.

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Problems with stereotyping

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. Can be inaccurate - Often based on inaccurate information . Can lead to stigmatisation. Stigma is a negative connotation associated with disapproval by others who are not labelled that way - If a social group is stigmatised then members of that group can feel like outcasts who are devalued or ignored just because they're are part of the stigmatised group

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Prejudice and discrimination

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. Can lead to prejudice, which can result in discrimination . Prejudice = Prejudgement . Because prejudice involves a judgement, it is usually considered to be an attitude, but specifically, one for which the focus is people. Like other attitudes, prejudice can be positive or negative . Psychology has focused on the study of prejudice as a negative attitude, mainly because of the social problems that prejudice towards other people can cause . Often defined as holding a negative attitude towards the member of the group.

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Characteristics of prejudice

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1. They tend to believe that they are superior to the minority group to whom the prejudice is directed 2. The majority group tends to believe the minority group is different from them and that they 'do not belong' 3. """ are more powerful and important than the minority group 4. """ that displays prejudiced attitudes is insecure, fearing the minority group may become more powerful and important than itself

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Old-fashioned Prejudice

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. A form of prejudice in which members of the majority group openly reject minority group members

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Modern Prejudice

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. A form of prejudice which is more subtle, hidden and expressed in ways more likely to be accepted within the majority group

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Discrimination

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. Prejudiced can also be expressed through discrimination. When this occurs, discrimination occurs. . Refers to positive or negative behaviour that is directed towards a social group and its members

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Direct discrimination

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. Occurs when someone is treated unfairly and is disadvantaged because of a personal characteristic protected by the law

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Indirect discrimination

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. Occurs when treating everybody the same way disadvantages someone because of a personal characteristic

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Development of prejudice

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. Developed, not born with . Primarily influenced by learning processes

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Ingroup

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. Any group that you belong to or identify with as an

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Outgroup

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. Any group you do not belong to or identify with

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Inter-group conflict

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. Occurs when members of different groups complete to achieve or control something that is wanted by the members of each group

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