Chapter 9 Notes Test Questions – Flashcards

No single, universal accepted definition

-Spawned development of standardized tests of intelligence -Says intelligence = [set of ] traits that characterize some people to a greater extent than others. (Goal = identify traits precisely & measure them so differences among individual can be described)

-Proposed in 1927 -General mental ability (g) contributes to performance on a variety of tasks, special abilities (s) are specific to particular tasks

-Fluid intelligence = the ability to use the mind actively to solve novel problems -Crystallized intelligence = the use of knowledge acquired through school and life experiences

1. At the top, a general ability factor that influences how well people do on a range of cognitive tasks 2. In the middle, a few broad dimensions, such as fluid intelligence, crystallized intelligence, memory capacity, and processing speed 3. At the bottom, specific abilities such as numerical reasoning, spatial discrimination, and word comprehension that also influence how well a person performs cognitive tasks that tap these specific abilities

Developed early version of IQ test that permitted testers to describe a child's mental age & level of age-graded problems a child could solve.

-Still used today, modified multiple times -Allowed the calculation of intelligence quotient: a child's mental age (MA) ÷ a child's chronological age (CA) = IQ -An IQ of 100 indicates average intelligence -Its test norms are based on the performance of a large representative sample of people, children 2 years of age through adults

Standards of normal performance expressed as average scores and the range of scores around the average

-Wechsler's intelligence tests, still widely used - Yield verbal IQ & performance IQ scores. 1. Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI) - for children 3 to 8 2. Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-IV) - for children 6 to 16 3. Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-IV) - for adults

-Scores on the Stanford-Binet and the Wechsler Scales form a normal distribution -Symmetrical bell-shaped spread around the average score of 100 -About 2/3 of people taking one of these tests score between 85 and 115 -Corresponds to the spread of scores within one standard deviation above and below the average score -Fewer than 3% have scores of 130 or above, which is used as one criterion of giftedness -Fewer than 3% have scores below 70, a cutoff used to define intellectual disability

-8 distinct intellectual abilities 1. Linguistic - language skills 2. Logical-mathematical - abstract thinking and problem-solving 3. Musical - acute sensitivity to sound patterns 4. Spatial - accurate perception 5. Bodily-kinesthetic - skillful use of the body to create, perform, etc. 6. Interpersonal - social intelligence and skill, sensitivity to the motivations and moods of others 7. Intrapersonal - understanding of one's own feelings and inner life 8. Naturalist - expertise in the natural world of plants and animals

-A circumstance in which an individual has exceptional ability in one area but otherwise is mentally retarded -Abilities may be musical, mathematical

-Sternberg proposed a triarchic theory of intelligence - three components that jointly contribute to intelligent behavior. 1) Practical or contextual component -Varies according to the sociocultural context in which it is displayed -Ability to adapt, shape, and select to the environment 2) Creative component includes -Response to novelty, which requires active and conscious information processing -Creating, inventing, discovering, imagining -Automization, or increased efficiency of information processing with practice 3) Analytic component -Information-processing skills that are assessed by traditional IQ tests -Planning, evaluating, analyzing, monitoring

-Included theory of successful intelligence 1. People are intelligent "to the extent that they have the abilities needed to succeed in life, according to their own definition of success within their sociocultural context." 2. These individuals are strong in all three areas - practical, creative, and analytical 3. Smart people optimize their strengths and minimize their weaknesses so that they can succeed

1. Creativity is the ability to produce novel responses appropriate in context and valued by others 2. IQ scores measure convergent thinking, "converging" on the best answer 3. Creativity involves divergent thinking, or generating a variety of ideas or solutions when there is no single correct answer

Ideational fluency - the sheer number of different ideas - is easy to score and most often used to assess creativity

1. Intellectual skills that constitute intelligence 2. Knowledge of the field 3. A thinking style that is open to new thinking 4. Personality characteristics such as calculated risk-taking and willingness to pursue and overcome obstacles 5. Motivation 6. An environment that is supportive of creative ideas

-most widely used infant test -Used for infants from 1 to 42 months 1. Motor scale - measures the infant's ability to do such things as grasp a cube and throw a ball 2. Mental scale - measures adaptive behaviors such as reaching for an object 3. Behavior rating scale - measures behaviors such as goal-directedness, emotional regulation, social responsivity -The infant's developmental quotient (DQ) summarizes how the infant performs in comparison with a large norm group of age-peer infants

-Scales such as the Bayley are useful in charting developmental progress, and in diagnosing neurological conditions and mental retardation -However, researchers find low or no correlations between infant DQ and child IQ -Researchers have found that later IQ can be predicted by: Measures of infant attention, such as speed of habituation and preference for novelty, fast reaction time

-DQs do not predict later IQs -Beginning at age 4, there is a fairly strong relationship between early and later IQ -Many children show sizeable ups and downs in their IQ scores during childhood: patterns of change differ considerably from child to child -Nevertheless, researchers conclude that within a group, children's standings (high or low) in comparison with peers stay stable from one point to another during the childhood years

-Children whose IQ scores fluctuate the most tend to live in unstable home environments -Noticeable drops in IQ with age often occur among children who live in poverty -Klineberg (1963) proposed a cumulative-deficit hypothesis explanation: impoverished environments inhibit intellectual growth, and these negative effects accumulate over time -Children whose IQ scores increase seem to have parents who foster achievement and whose parenting is neither too strict nor too lax

1. The course of creativity during childhood: -Preschoolers display fairly high levels of divergent thought -Creativity begins to decline at entry to kindergarten and first grade -Creativity declines even further by fourth grade (the "fourth-grade slump") -Levels of divergent thinking rise again after age 12 2. Variations are not as large as once believed 3. May reflect the demands of school and peers to conform to the group

Researchers compared creative children of normal-range IQ with children who scored high in IQ but not in creativity: -The creative children showed more freedom, originality, humor, aggression, and playfulness -Engage in more fantasy or pretend play, active imaginations, often invent new uses for objects or new roles for themselves, are open to new experiences and ideas, and have parents who tolerate their unconventional ideas -Unconventional responses are not always appreciated in the conventional classroom

-Parents who tend to value nonconformity and independence, accept their children as they are, encourage their curiosity and playfulness, and grant them a good deal of freedom to explore new possibilities on their own -Early studies suggested that for some creative individuals, childhood adversity was a driving force behind their creativity

-Brain development in early adolescence enables formal operations, improved memory and information-processing skills, and better performance on IQ tests -IQ scores become more stable and predict IQ in middle age -In childhood and adolescence, IQ scores are a good predictor of school achievement (Better predictor of high school grades than of college grades)

-Adolescents often regain creativeness they had as preschoolers and can produce highly creative work -The developmental course of creativity is not as predictable or steady as measures of IQ Seems to change in response to developmental needs and task demands -Adolescents report increased creative feelings (Curiosity, imagination, willingness to take calculated risks)

1. Talent 2. Motivation to develop their talents 3. Willingness to take risks 4. Ability to deal with ambiguity without becoming frustrated 5. Environments that recognize, value, and nurture creativity

Research reveals strong relationships between IQ and factors that represent occupational success such as: 1. Income 2. Occupational prestige 3. Complexity of work 4. Job performance ratings

-Those with higher IQ scores tend to be healthier and live longer than those with lower scores -Common explanation is socioeconomic status (Better jobs provide resources for better healthcare) -However, effective management of personal health requires abilities such as learning and problem-solving - a certain amount of intelligence

In Kaufman's study (2001): -Cross-sectional data showed that IQs rise slightly until the mid-40s and then decline -->Steepest declines begin around age 80 -Longitudinal data suggested that intellectual abilities decline with age -In both the cross-sectional and the longitudinal studies, verbal IQ changed little with age, at least until people reached their 80s -However, performance IQ peaked by ages 20-24 and then steadily declined Example: IQ scores by age, showing a slow decline starting about age 55

K. Warner Schaie (1996, 2005) tested adults aged 22-70 on five mental abilities: 1. Verbal meaning 2. Spatial ability 3. Reasoning 4. Numerical ability 5. Word fluency -Sequential design used longitudinal and cross-sectional data

1. Cohort or generational effects on performance exist a. Affected by amount and quality of education 2. Patterns of aging differ for different abilities a. Fluid intelligence usually declines earlier and more steeply than crystallized intelligence b. Starting in middle age, problem-solving may be impaired, but general knowledge and vocabulary are retained Example: Schematic rendering of fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence over the lifespan

Declines in intellectual performance in old age are related to the following factors: -Poor health: Diseases and possibly the drugs used to treat them contribute to the terminal drop (a rapid decline in intellectual abilities within a few years of death) -Unstimulating lifestyle: 1.Schaie found that the greatest intellectual declines were shown by elderly widows who had low social status, few activities, and dissatisfaction with their lives - live alone and seemed disengaged. 2. Those who maintained or gained tended to have above-average SES, advanced education, intact marriages, intellectually capable spouses, and physically and mentally active lifestyles

Definitions of wisdom: -Baltes and colleagues: a constellation of rich factual knowledge about life combined with procedural knowledge such as strategies for giving advice and handling conflicts that permit someone to offer exceptional insight, judgment, and advice about complex and uncertain matters -Sternberg: a wise person is someone who can combine successful intelligence with creativity to solve problems that require balancing multiple interests or perspectives

A study to assess the relative contributions of age and specialized experience to wisdom revealed that: 1. Wisdom was rare and not predicted by age 2. Expertise - life experiences - contributed to the development of wisdom 3. Wisdom seems to reflect a combination of intelligence, personality, and cognitive style 4. A supportive social environment in early adulthood was positively associated with wisdom 40 years later

1. Research reveals a typical pattern for creative careers to develop -Creative production typically increases steeply from the 20s to the late 30s or early 40s -Creative production gradually declines thereafter -Peak times of creative achievement vary from field to field a. Productivity by scholars in the humanities peaks in the 60s and continues into old age b. Scientists peak in their 40s and decline in their 70s c. Productivity in the arts peaks in the 30s and 40s and declines steeply thereafter 2. Theories to explain changes in creative production over the adult years -People in their 30s and 40s have both the enthusiasm and the experience needed for creative achievement -Simonton (1999) suggested that creative activity involves two processes, but the two processes might not be manifested at the same time a. Ideation - generating creative ideas b. Elaboration - executing ideas to produce poems, paintings, or scientific publications -Simonton suggested that creative production tapers off because older creators have fewer potential ideas

-Genetic and environmental factors interact that influence IQ scores -During the 20th century, in all countries studied, average IQ scores increased by 3 to 4 points per decade: a. Full-scale IQ scores increased by 18 points over 50 years b. Due to improved nutrition and living conditions, more focused attention from parents, and better education

-Researchers find that about half of the variation in IQ scores within a group of individuals is associated with genetic differences among them -But a genetic influence upon intelligence does not mean that IQ is unresponsive to the environment -Sameroff and colleagues (1993) identified risk factors that affect IQ, and the greater the number of these risk factors affecting a child, the lower the IQ -Researchers use the Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment (HOME) inventory to assess the intellectual stimulation of children's home environment -Most important factors are: a.Parental involvement with the child b. Opportunities for stimulation (Stimulation should be responsive to the child's behavior and matched to the child's competencies) -Parents with greater intelligence are more likely than less intelligent parents to provide intellectually stimulating home environments for their children and to pass on to their children genes that contribute to high intelligence -Genes and environments are combined in ways that allow children with particular genetic make-ups to display high intelligence under some environmental conditions a. Intellectual development is best when a motivated, intellectually capable child gets intellectual nourishment from involved and responsive parents

-Poverty is defined by low family income -Child poverty includes low levels of meeting children's basic needs: 1. Inadequate health and dental care and nutrition 2. Live in overcrowded, unsafe neighborhoods 3. Families experience chronic stress 4. Relationships with parents may not be as affectionate or supportive as they could be 5. Lack opportunities for cognitive stimulation -Children who live in poverty average 10-20 points below middle-class age-peers on IQ tests In all racial and ethnic groups -Research finds that improving the economic conditions of children's homes can improve their IQs -The brain has neuroplasticity - is responsive to environmental change