Chapter 11,2 &3

Personality-defined as an individuals unique and relatively consistent patterns of think. personality theory-an attempt to describe and explain how people are similar, how they are different, and why every individual is unique. Four perspectives (1) psychoanalytic perspective-emphasizes the importance of unconscious processes and the influence of early childhood experience. (2) humanistic perspective-represents an optimistic look at human nature, emphasizing the self and the fulfillment of a persons unique potential (3) social cognitive perspective-emphasizes learning and conscious cognitive processes, including the importance of beliefs about the self, goal setting, and self-regulation.

he was very intelligent and intensely ambitious. He studies medicine,became a physician, and then proved himself to be an outstanding psychological researcher. he was among the first investigators of a new drug that had anesthetic and mood-alternating properties--cocaine. He reluctantly gave up physiological research for a private practice in neurology. His theory evolved gradually during his first 20 yrs. of private practice. He based his theory on observations of his patients as well as one self-analysis. He develop a technique of free association to help his patients uncover forgotten memories. He wrote popular books like interpretation of dreams, the psychopathology of everyday life. Freud saw personality and behavior as the result of a constant interplay among conflicting psychological forces. These psychological forces operate at three different levels of awareness: the conscious, the preconscious, and the unconsciousness.

The preconscious-contains information that your not currently aware of but can easily bring to conscious awareness, such as memories of recent events or your street address. conscious-all the thoughts feelings and sensations that you're are of at this particular moment. Unconscious-lies submerged below the waterline of the preconscious and conscious. You are not directly aware of these submerged thoughts, feelings, wishes, and drives, but the unconscious exerts an enormous influence on your conscious thoughts and behavior.

Ego-rational, planful, mediating dimension of personality superego-moralistic, judgmental, perfectionist dimension of personality Id -irrational ,illogical, impulsive dimension of personality conscious-information in your immediate awareness preconscious-information that can easily be made conscious Unconscious-thoughts, feelings,urges, and wishes that are difficult to bring conscious awareness.

The foundations of adult personality are established during the first five years of life, as the child progresses through the oral, anal and phallic psychosexual stages. Latency stage-occurs during late childhood, and the fifth of final stage. genital stage-begins in adolescence oral stage-first year of life. During this time the infant derives pleasure through the oral activities of sucking, chewing, and biting. anal stage-during the next two years, pleasure is derived through elimination and acquiring control over elimination. phallic stage- pleasure seeking is focused on the genitals.

In general, the neo-freudians disagreed with freud on three key points. First, they took issue with Freud's belief that behavior was primarily motivated by sexual urges, second, they disagreed with Freuds contention that personality is fundamentally determined by early childhood experiences. Instead, the neo-fredians believed that personality can also be influenced by experiences throughout the lifespan. Third, the neo-freudian theorists departed from Freud's generally pessimistic view of human nature and society. Carl Jung-was fascinated by the myths, folktales, and religions of his own and other cultures. Karen Horney-while freud traced psychological problems to sexual conflict, horney found that her american patients were much more worried about their jobs and economic problems than their sex lies. Thus, Horney came to stress the importance of cultural and social factors in personality development--matters that Freud had largely ignored. Alfred Adler-After studying medicine, he became associated with Freud. But from the beginning of Adler's interest in psychoanalysis, he disagreed with Freud on several issues. In particular, Adler placed much more emphasis on the importance of conscious thought processes and social motives. Eventually, Adler broke away from Freud to establish his own theory of personality.

Psychoanalysis-is a theory of personality that stresses the influence of unconscious mental processes, the importance of sexual and agressive instincts, and the enduring effects of early childhood experience on personality.

humanistic perspective-emphasizes free will, self-awareness, and psychological growth.

Carl Rogers-Rogers developed a personality theory from his clinical experiences with his patients. Rogers referred to his patients as "clients" to emphasize their active and voluntary participation in theory. In his early life he was a minister. These observations convinced Rogers that the most basic human motive is the actualizing tendency--the innate drive to maintain and enhance the human organism. Rogers personality theory:The idea of the self-concept. The self concept is the set of perceptions and beliefs that you have about yourself, including your nature, your personal qualities, and your typical behavior. According to Rogers people are motivated to act in accordance with their self-concept.

Like Freud, Rogers developed his personality theory from his clinical experiences with his patients. Rogers referred to his patients as "clients" to emphasize their active and voluntary participation in therapy. In marked contrastto Frued, Rogers was continually impressed by his clients drive to grow and develop their potential. These oberservations convinced Rogers that the most basic human motive is the actualzing tendency--the innate drive to maintain and enhance the human organisms. According to Rogers, all other human motives, whether biological or social, are secondary. He compared the actualizing tendency to a childs drive to learn to walk despite early frustration and falls.

...weaknesses-based on philosophical assumptions or clinical observations rather than on empirical research. and it is also viewed as too optimistic. Key strengths: the influence of humanistic psychology has made lasting contribution, especially in the realms of psychotherapy, counseling, education, and parenting.

Alberts Bandura's theory of personality- which emphasizes the importance of observational learning, conscious cognitive processes, social experiences, self-efficacy beliefs, and reciprocal determinism. self efficacy beliefs-the beliefs that people have about their ability to meet the demands of a specific situation;feelings of self-confidence . According to Bandura it is our self-system that guides how we perceive, evaluate, and control our behavior in different situations.

...Freud viewed aggression as a universal, unconscious human instinct that must be controlled by the internal restraints of the superego and the external restraints of culture, society, and morality. Aggressive instincts were part of the irrational, impulsive, and unconscious id. Albert Bandura has taken issue with Freuds explanation of war and cruelty as being caused by the failure of the rational ego, the superego's restraints, and society laws to control, the id's destructive impulses.

...Key strength-is its grounding in empirical,laboratory research. The social cognitive perspective is built on research in learning, cognitive psychology, and social psychology rather than clinical impressions. Weaknesses:some psychologist feel that the social cognitive approach to personality applies best to laboratory research. It also ignores unconscious influences, emotions, or conflicts.

trait theories-A theory of personality that focuses on identifying, describing, and measuring individual differences in behavioral predispositions. surface personality characteristics or attributes that can easily be inferred from observable behavior. source traits-the most fundamental dimensions of personality;the broad,basic traits that are hypothesized to be universal and relatively few in number

extraversion, neuroticism, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness to experience. Five-factor model of personality, these five dimensions represent the structural organization of personality traits. in one wide ranging study, trained observes rated the personality traits of representative individuals in 50 different cultures, including Arab cultures like those in kuwait and Morocco and African cultures like those in Uganda and Ethiopia. With few exceptions, people could be reliably described in terms of the five-factor structure of personality. Other research has shown that people in European, African, Aarab, and Asian cultures describe personality using terms that are consistent with five-factor model.

One criticism is that trait theories dont really explain human personality. Instead, they imply label general predispositions to behave in a certain way. Second, trait theorists dont attempt to explain how or why individual differences develop. After all, saying that trait differences are due partly to genetics and partly to environmental influences isnt saying much. Third, trait approaches generally fail to address other important personality issues, such as the basic motives that drive human personality, the role of unconscious mental processes, how beliefs about the self influence personality, or how psychological change and growth occur.

Neuroscience-the study of the nervous system, especially the brain. Biological Psychology-The specialized branch of psychology that studies the relationship between behavior and bodily processes and systems;also called biopsychology or psychobiology. They study this because it makes an important contribution to neuroscience.

neurons-A highly specialized cell that communicates information in electrical and chemical form; a nerve cell. (2) Glial cell-The support cells that assist neurons by providing structural support, nutrition, and removal of cell wastes;glial cells manufacture myelin. The three different types of neurons... (1)Sensory neurons-communicate information from the environment to the central nervous system. (2) Motor Neurons- communicate information from the central nervous system to the muscles. (3) Interneurons-communicate information from one neuron to another.

The basic components of a neuron; A cell body, dendrites, and an axon. A cell body- also called the soma, contains structures that manufacture proteins and process nutrients, providing the energy the neuron needs to function. The cell body also contains the nucleus, which in turn contains the cell genetic material--twisted strands of DNA called chromosomes. Dendrites- short, branching fibers that extend from the cell bodies of most neurons. Dendrites receive messages from other neurons or specialized cells. Axon-is a single, elongated tube that extends from the cell body in most, though not all neurons. Axons carry information from the neuron to other cells in the body, including other neurons, glands, and muscles. Action potential-The action potential is produced by the movement of electrically charged particles, called ions, across the membrane of the axon. Some ions are negatively charged, others positively charged.

(1) Action potential travels along axon of sending neurons. (2)Action potential triggers release of neurotransmitters by synaptic vesicles. (3)Neurotransmitters cross synaptic gap and bind to the correctly shaped receptor sites on the postsynaptic neuron.

(1) Acetylcholine, the first neurotransmitter discovered, is found in all motor neurons. It stimulates muscles to contract, including the heart and stomach muscles.. The effects of behavior:found in many neurons in the brain, it is important in memory, learning, and general intellectual functioning. An associated disorder can be Alzheimer's disease. (2) Dopamine is involved in movement, attention, learning, and pleasurable or rewarding sensations. Excessive brain levels of dopamine are sometimes involved in the hallucinations and perceptual distortions that characterize the severe mental disorder schizophrenia. Also Parkinson's disease, and drug addiction. (3) serotonin-involved in sensory perceptions, sleep and emotions. Leads from depression. (4) norepinephrine-involved in learning, memory, and regulation of sleep;also a hormone manufactured by adrenal glands. Like serotonin and dopamine, norepinephrine dysfunction is implicated in some psychological disorders, especially depression. (5)Glutamate- Excitatory messages, associated disorder:seizures, Alzheimer's disease. (6)GABA-Inhibitory messages, associated disorders:Anxiety disorder. (7) Endorphines - Pain perception and Positive emotions. Associated disorder:Opioid addiction.

The brain-acts as the command center The spinal cord-handles both incoming and outgoing messages. Sensory receptors send messages along sensory nerves to the spinal cord, then up to the brain. To activate muscles, the brain sends signals down the spinal cord which are relayed out along motor nerves to the muscles. spinal reflexes-simple, automatic behaviors that are processed in the spinal cord. This simple reflex involves a loop of rapid communication among sensory neurons, which communicate sensation to the spinal cord;interneurons, which relay information within the spinal cord;and motor neurons, which signal the muscles to react. Spinal reflexes are crucial to your survival. They are also important as indicators that the neural pathways in your spinal cord are working correctly.

peripheral nervous system-the division of the nervous system that includes all the nerves lying outside the central nervous system. Subdivisions;Somatic nervous system-the subdivision of the peripheral nervous system that communicates sensory information to the central nervous system and carries motor messages from the central nervous system to the muscles. (2)Autonomic nervous system-the subdivision of the peripheral nervous system that regulates involuntary functions. (3)sympathetic nervous system-the branch of the autonomic nervous system that produces rapid physical arousal in response to perceived emergencies or threats. (4) parasympathetic nervous system-the branch of the autonomic nervous system that maintains normal bodily functions and conserves the body's physical resources.

Systematic investigations of a single person that provide detailed descriptions.

Brain stem-A region of the brain made up of the hindbrain and the midbrain. (1) hindbrain-region at base of brain that connects the brain to the spinal cord. (2)midbrain-contains structures involved in processing visual and auditory information. (3)pons-helps coordinate movements on left and right sides of body (4)cerebellum-coordinates movement, balance, and posture. (5)reticular formation-helps regulate attention and alertness (6)medulla-controls breathing, heartbeat, and other vital life functions.

cerebral cortex-the wrinkled outer portion of the forebrain, which contains the most sophisticated brain centers. Four lobes (1)temporal lob-An area on each hemisphere of the cerebral cortex, near the temples, that is the primary receiving area for auditory information. (2)occipital lobe-an area at the back of each cerebral hemisphere that is the primary receiving area for visual information (3)parietal lobe-an area on each hemisphere of the cerebral cortex located above the temporal lobe that processes somatic sensations. (4)frontal lobe-the largest lobe of each cerebral hemisphere;processes voluntary muscle movements and is involved in thinking, planning, and emotional control.

limbic system- A group of forebrain structures that form a border around the brainstem and are involved in emotion, motivation, learning, and memory. Functions: (1)hippocampus-A curved forebrain structure that is part of the limbic system and is involved in learning and forming new information. (2)thalamus- A forebrain structure that processes sensory information for all senses except smell, relaying that information in the cerebral cortex. (3) hypothalamus- A peanut-sized forebrain structure.that is part of the limbic system and that regulates behaviors related to survival, such as eating, drinking, and sexual activity. (4)amygdala- An almond-shaped cluster of neurons in the brain's temporal lobe, involved in memory and emotional responses, especially fear.

lateralization of function-the notion that specific psychological or cognitive functions are processed primarily on one side of the brain. The discoveries of Broca and Wernicke provided the first compelling clinical evidence that language and speech functions are performed primarily by the left cerebral hemisphere. If similar brain damage occurs in the exact same location on the right hemisphere, these server disruptions in language and speech are usually not seen.

Speech and language functions are lateralized on the left hemisphere. Generally, the left hemisphere exerts greater control over speech and language abilities in virtually all right-handed and the majority of left handed people.

split-brain operation-a surgical procedure that involves cutting the corpus callosum. This operation is used to stop or reduce recurring seizures in severe cases of epilepsy that cant be treated in any other fashion. The corpus callosum is a thick band of axons that connects the two hemispheres. An epileptic seizure typically occurs when neurons begin firing in a disorganization fashion in one region of the brain. The disorganized neuronal firing quickly spreads form one hemisphere to the other via the corpus callosum. If the corpus callosum is cut, seizures should be contained in just one hemisphere, reducing their severity or eliminated them altogether.

sensation-the process of detecting physical stimulus, such as light, sound, heat or pressure. Perception-the process of integrating, organizing, and interpreting sensations.

Sensory adaption-the decline in sensitivity to a constant stimulus. Because of sensory adaptation, we become accustomed to constant stimuli, which allows us to quickly notice new or changing stimuli. This makes sense. If we were continually aware of all incoming stimuli, wed be so overwhelmed with sensory information that we wouldn't be able to focus our attention. So, for example, once you manage to and your posterior on the sofa, you dont need to be constantly reminded that the sofa is beneath you.

...subliminal perception-the detection of stimuli that are below the threshold of conscious perception or awareness. (2)subliminal persuasion

...Cornia, iris, pupil,lens,retna. (1)cornia-clear membrane covering the visibile part of the eye that helps gather and direct incoming light. (2)pupil-opening in the middle of the iris that changes size to let in different amount of light. (3)iris-the color part of the eye which is the muscle which controls the size of the pupil (4)lens-transparent structure that is located behind the pupil that aciviely focuses or bends light as it enters the eye. (5)retna-light sensitve membrane loacted at the back of the eye that contains the sensory receptors for vision.

rods- the long, thin, blunt sensory receptors of the eye that are highly sensitive to light, but not to color, and that are primarily responsible for peripheral vision and night vision. cones- the short, thick, pointed sensory receptors of the eye that detect color and are responsible for color vision and visual activity. blind spot-the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, producing a small gap i the field of vision.

trichromatic- the theory that the sensation of color results because cones in the retina are especially sensitive to red light (long wavelengths), green light (medium wavelengths), or blue light (short wavelengths).... opponent process- theory that color vision is the product of opposing pairs of color receptors. red green blue yellow and black and white. When one member of a color pair is stimulated the other member is inhibited.

audition-the technical term for the sense of hearing. Roles Loudness-the intensity of a sound wave, measured in decibels. amplitude-the intensity or amount of energy of a wave, reflected in the height of the wave;the amplitude of a sound wave determines a sounds loudness. pitch-the relative highness or lowness of a sound, determined by the frequency of a sound wave. frequency-the rate of vibration, or the number of sound waves per second. timbre-the distinctive quality of a sound, determined by the complexity of the sound wave. three bones are called ossicles. midd is what cotaines the three bones. inner ear-cocclea-vestibular membrane with tiny hairs, if you damage your cant hear.

frequency theory-the view that the basilar membrane vibrates at the same frequency as the sound wave. place theory-the view that different frequencies cause larger vibrations at different locations along the basilar membrane. Both frequency theory and place theory are involved in explaining our discrimination of pitch. Frequency theory helps explain our discrimination of low frequencies. Place theory helps explain our discrimination of higher pitched sounds. For intermediate frequencies or midrange pitches, both place and frequency are involved.

Inhaled through the nose or the mouth, airborne molecules travel to the top of the nasal cavity and stimulate the olfactory receptors. When stimulated, these receptor cells communicate neural messages to the olfactory bulb, which is part of the olfactory cortex of the brain, where the sense of smell is registered.

Our sense of taste results from the stimulation of special receptors in the mouth. The stimuli that produce the sensations of taste are chemical substances that are dissolved by saliva, allowing the chemicals to activate the taste buds. Taste buds-the specialized sensory receptors for taste that are located on the tongue and inside the mouth and throat. Most taste are complex and result from the activation of different combinations of basic taste receptors. Taste is just one aspect of flavor, which involves several sensations, including the aroma, temperature, texture, and appearance of food.

skin senses provide essential information about your physical status and your physical interaction with objects in your environment. nociceptors-specialized sensory receptors for pain that are found in the skin, muscles, and internal organs. touch:receptor equals pacinina corpuscle located beneath the skin. pain:receptor is nociceptors you have millions throughout body mostly in skin.

kinesthetic sense-the sense that involves the location and position and body parts in relation to one another. (The word kinesthetics literally means "feelings of motion.") The kinesthetic sense involves specialized sensory neurons, called proprioceptors, which are located in the muscles and joints. The proprioceptors constantly communicate information to the brain about changes in body position and muscle tension. Vestibular senses- provides a sense of balance, or equilibrium, by responding to changes in gravity, motion, and body position. The two sources of vestibular sensory information, the semicircular canals and the vestibular sacs, are both located in the ear. These structures are filled with fluid and lined with hair-like receptor cells that shift in response to motion.

...esp -extrasensory perception, means the detection of information by some means other than through the normal processes of sensation. (2)parapsychology-refers to the scientific investigation of claims of various paranormal phenomena. esp-telepathy, clairvoyance, psychonesis and precognition.

Monocular cues- distance or depth cues that can be processed by either eye alone. Different monocular cues: (1)relative size-if two or more objects are assumed to be similar in size, the object that appears larger is perceived as being closer. (2)overlap-when one object partially blocks or obscures the view of another object, the partially blocked object is perceived as being farther away. This cue is called interposition. (3)aerial perspective-faraway objects often appear hazy or slightly blurred by the atmosphere. (4)texture gradient-As a surface with a distinct texture extends into the distance, the details of the surface texture gradually become less clearly defined. The texture of the surface seems to undergo a gradient, or continuous pattern of change, from crips and distinct when close to fuzzy and blended when farther away. (5)motion parallax-when you are moving, you use the speed of passing objects to estimate the distance of the nearby objects. Binocular cues-Distance or depth cues that require the use of both eyes. Different cues: (1)convergence-the degree to which muscles rotate your eyes to focus on an object (2)binocular disparity-Our eyes are set a couple inches apart, a slightly different image of an object is cast on the retina of each eye. (3)stereogram- is a picture that uses the principle of binocular disparity to create the perception of a three-dimensional image.

size constancy shape constancy color/brightness

Muller-lyer illusion-A famous visual illusion involving the misperception of the identical length of two lines, one with arrows pointed inward, one with arrows pointed outward. Moon illusion-A visual illusion involving the misperception that the moon is larger when it is on the horizon than when it is directly overhead. impossible figures-

emphasize that we precise who objects or figures rather than isolated bits and pieces of sensory information. (1)proximity-if something is close to something else we want to group them together. (2)similarity-if things are similar to each other we group them together (3)closure-our brain likes to fill in things that are close to a recognizable pattern. (4)figure and ground-what we consider the background and what we consider the figure effects what we see.