Chapter 11 & 12 – Flashcards

From 1830-1860 the number of immigrants arriving from Europe hit a sudden increase. These people were mostly from northern Europe and included the Irish and Germans. They arrived in New England seaside cities, such as Boston, New York and Philadelphia. Most stayed in the North where they landed, or they would move out to the Old Northwest. Immigrants came to America because of cheap ocean transportation, problems in their homeland, and the fact that the US was considered to be full of economic opportunity. Irish immigrants made up half of those who came over, mostly due to potato crop failures and the resulting famine. They were discriminated against because of their religion, and it was difficult for them to find jobs because their main skill was farming. The Germans immigrated due to a failed Democratic revolution. They became farmers in the West or artisans. The nativists reacted strongly against the foreigners, and organized an anti-foreigner society called the Supreme Order of the Star-Spangled Banner.

In 1816, this Connecticut gunsmith produced the first gun with interchangeable parts. Eli Whitney had originally thought of and hoped to do this, but failed with his time constraints. North formed the concept of interchangeable parts, which was called the 'American system' or the Lowell system. He created milling machines that could grind parts to the required specifications. In this system, each part of the gun created by unskilled workers filling a simple mold. John Hall also did this, but 8 years later. This new production method meant that a gun could be fixed by easily replacing a part, instead of replacing the whole gun. North's standardized production quickly revolutionized the manufacture of many items. This was a source of to national pride because the 'American system' was not taken from another country, such as Britain.

This canal (man-made waterway) was among many built around this time, but it was the most famous. It was formulated by DeWitt Clinton who envisioned a link between The Great Lakes and the Hudson River and eventually NYC. It ended up being 364 miles long, 4 feet deep, and 40 feet wide, with more than 300 bridges and 83 locks (in short, ways for ships to move up in elevation). Most of its construction was done by immigrant workers (Irish, mostly) who were seen as frightening among local people. When the canal was proposed in 1817, people called it "Clinton's Ditch" as a way of mocking it. They had good reason. The largest canal built up until the Erie was a mere 27 miles and took nine years to build. DeWitt Clinton promised to finish the 364-mile long Erie Canal in less than ten years. He made good on his promise, finishing it on 10/26/1825. This is partly because of the reliability of Irish workers. The first boat to sail it was the Seneca Chief, named after the Seneca Indians who ironically had to be moved in order for this canal to be built. Towns along the new waterway instantly became bustling cities - Utica, Rochester, Buffalo, and others. But, the greatest beneficiary of the project was New York City, which quickly became the largest commercial/financial city in America. This canal was important because it helped develop strong ties between the East and West. But, the canal did weaken the South, and the Northern-Southern relationship. Since the North could now rely on the small farms in the Midwest to grow their crops and not the South, certain resources from the South were no longer needed by the North, which wore the South thin in some places. Without the Erie Canal, commercial ties with the Midwest and the North would have been a joke. Finally, the Erie canal sparked a canal-creating frenzy across America, linking all of the major lakes and rivers west of the MS River. The Erie ranks among the longest canals in the world.

As part of Henry Clay's "American System", internal improvements including federal funding for roads and canals (see Erie Canal) would improve transportation and help commercialize the nation, as well as help develop ties between respective sections of America. One of these improvements was the National Road (fully completed in 1839), sometimes referred to as the Cumberland Road only because it begins in Cumberland, MD (and ends in Vandalia, Illinois). James' Madison and Monroe both supported interstate roads like this sensing the urgent need for decent transportation routes. But, when congressmen proposed spending federal money on local projects, the two presidents both were quick to veto them, citing their unconstitutionality. In 1830, Andrew Jackson unexpectedly vetoed the Maysville Road Bill. Being a westerner, he surely saw the urgent need for better transportation. Looking a little bit deeper, who was the American System proposed by? Henry Clay. Who was Jackson arch-political-rival? Indeed, Henry Clay. By this time, Jackson sought to end all of the debate over the internal improvements because they seemed to always dissatisfy somebody, so he refused to provide any federal funding for any of them. The impact of the internal improvements was immense, as it helped to country progress as a unified nation through much-needed transportation. And with projects like the National Road, commerce in the area would be changed for decades to come.

This was a middle-class female idea of going through their daily lives with more emotion, sincerity, and feeling. By definition, being sentimental is doing something while "colored with emotion". During the Market Revolution, women turned to writing and reading sentimental novels, a new literary form of the age. Denounced by ministers and scholars as frivolous and a subversive way of demonstrating authority, the novel found an audience in American women. Most of the novels tended to focus on private lives, rather than public. Being a female novelist turned out to be an uncomfortable occupation for women because of how new it was. Also, sentimentalism created rules for sheer emotional times, like the death of a family member, concerning condolences, clothing, general etiquette, and how you were to express your grief. A widow was actually expected to, for the first year after the death of her husband, were black fabrics with a veil. And the second year, grayish fabrics, often veil-less. This had the greatest impact not on feelings as the name suggests, but social codes. Sentimentalism quickly became a mark of the middle-class. A regulation of what you should wear and what you should do, how you should do it, etc., seems a bit excessive no doubt. But, women of the time wanted to conform to the ways of society, so being a sentimentalist was one way of doing such a thing.

This, along with sentimentalism, defined middle-class households. This is, in essence, gender roles. Men held the responsibility of economic and political affairs while women were concerned more with the social aspects of life in the family; taking care of the children and home. Also, women were thought of as the educators under "the cult of domesticity", something we still see today. How many of your elementary school teachers were women? I suspect the grand majority. This concept originates in this time - the 1830s and 1840s. The husband was no longer the undisputed head of the family when it comes to everything, women now played a much larger part in it. They provided a relaxing refuge from the pressures of the industrial world. A major impact on society that came from this was male-oriented politics and economy, with a female-oriented house and home. These ideas are, again, still seen today.

The Proclamation of South Carolina was issued by President Jackson in 1832, stating that nullification and disunion were treason, and that seceding was not an option. He issued this in reaction to Calhoun and South Carolina coming together to nullify the tariffs of 1828 and 1832. They passed a resolution forbidding the collection of tariffs within the state, and they threatened to secede if the federal government tried to enforce the tariff. Along with issuing this proclamation, Jackson passed the Force Bill, which gave him authority to take military action in South Carolina. This was unnecessary, for a compromise was met on a lower tariff. This event was very important because it showed the tensions that were arising, and the sectionalism that was apparent in the nation, because Southerners felt that tariffs were only for the benefit of the North.

An emphasis on profit; began with the putting-out system which allowed a new source of income for New England families and the use of mass-produced goods, creating a larger market economy. Slowly, commercialization (replacing barter with a cash economy) spread across the nation. The transportation revolution sparked expansion in the Old Northwest, demanding cash for land that came from commercialization. To maximize profit, there was regional specialization of crops, and other farmers speculatively invested in land to sell it as prices rose. On the negative side of this practice was the environmental harm to fields that were quickly depleted. Commercialism was another important change of this era because it brought economic growth to many.

The Kitchen Cabinet was a group of politicians who were not part of Jackson's official cabinet who advised Jackson throughout his presidency. People in this cabinet included Martin Van Buren and Jackson's old western friends. However, this did not include John C. Calhoun (the vice president) Henry Clay, or Daniel Webster (sectional representatives). Henry Clay was not included because Jackson hated him for his role in the corrupt bargain. Daniel Webster was not included because Jackson saw him as a representative of the privileged elite. The term Kitchen Cabinet is still used to this day to refer to unofficial advisors to the president. The Kitchen Cabinet was important because it made Jackson's official cabinet have less influence because he would turn to the Kitchen Cabinet for advice.

The Peggy Eaton Affair/War of the Petticoats was a scandal that took place during Jackson's first term. It revolved around Margaret "Peggy" Eaton, wife of Jackson's Secretary of War, John Henry Eaton. It was rumored that Peggy Eaton had unlawful relations with John Henry Eaton while her previous husband, John B. Timberlake, was alive. Because of this, the wives of Jackson's cabinet members shunned her. Since Jackson's wife, Rachel, had had similar accusations against her during the 1828 campaign, Jackson believed Peggy Eaton to be innocent. He defended her and tried, in vain, to convince his cabinet members to force their wives to talk to her. After Jackson tried to force the cabinet wives to accept Peggy Eaton, most of his cabinet members resigned. The controversy of this affair caused tension between Jackson and John C. Calhoun, whose wife was a leader in the anti-Eaton group. A year later, John C. Calhoun resigned as vice president and Martin Van Buren took his place. This is important because it helped Jackson to change Washington politics, although he claimed he was just doing it to be chivalrous. It led to the role that women had played since 1800 in Washington politics to end.

Industrialization began in the early 19th century in the textile industry because of the invention of mechanized spinning and weaving of cloth. By the 1830s, northern factories were producing a much wider range of goods-from farm tools to clocks to shoes. The development of industry meant that many people who had once relied on farming/agriculture to earn their living were now dependent on factory wages. There were 2 systems that helped industrialization: the putting out system and the American system, or the Lowell system. The putting out system was when workers would make goods in their own homes under the supervision of a merchant. The worker would be paid a certain amount per finished item. The American system was manufacturing interchangeable parts. This system enabled American businesses to mass-produce goods. Women were important in the workforce. Industrialization threatened skilled male workers because many women worked in factories. The invention of mechanical machines gave opportunities to women to work outside of their homes and in factories. The growing clothing industry in the 1820s depended on cheap female labor.

Sectionalism was the divide between the North and the South. It began in the 1820s. One of the first events to show signs of sectionalism was the Missouri Compromise. Drawing a line between free and slave states was only a temporary solution to the deepening rift between the North and the South. The Election of 1824 shows the divide between the North and the South as well. Even though there was only one party, the Democratic-Republicans, they were divided. The Tariff of 1828/Tariff of Abominations would also add to the rift between the North and the South. The south, especially South Carolina, believed that the tariff was getting too high was only benefiting the North. This led to South Carolina nullifying the Tariff. Eventually a lower tariff was agreed upon but this showed the rising tensions between the North and the South. The rift between the North and the South would continue to deepen until the 1860s, when it resulted in the civil war.

Reform is simply the change of position of policy. In the Jacksonian Era, reform primarily applies to the Indian removal, nullification, national banks, internal development, and free enterprise. Jackson reformed the federal government's position on Indian affairs and nullification, with the passing of the Indian Removal Act (1830) and the Force Bill (1832). The former enables federal authorities to remove Indians from their land, and relocate them, the latter allowed Jackson to use the U.S. Army to invade South Carolina and enforce the Tariffs of 1816 and 1828. Jackson vetoed The Maysville Road Bill (1830). He stated, like Madison and Monroe before him, the Constitution didn't allow the federal government to provide the necessary funding, and that it must come from the states. Jackson also vetoed the rechartering of the national bank in 1832, transferring funds to state banks, or "pet banks". During this era, private companies got the support of the government in crucial cases, such as Dartmouth College v. Woodward (1819), and Gibbons v. Ogden (1824).

Temperance in America originally began in 1789, when about 200 Connecticut farmers began to campaign for the prohibition of whiskey production. Temperance was reborn in 1825 because of the preaching of a Connecticut preacher named Lyman Beecher. This and similar movements led to the formation of the American Temperance Society in 1826, which by 1838, consisted of about 8,000 chapters, totaling over 1.5 million members. By the next year, there were almost 20 temperance magazines and journals being published. In the 1920's similar groups led to the 18th Amendment, prohibiting the production, sale, and use of alcohol.

Missouri was granted statehood in 1820, but it was debated over the condition of slavery in that state. At the same time, the Massachusetts territory of Maine was granted statehood. So in 1821, Congress reached the Missouri Compromise. Missouri would be a slave state, and Maine would be a free state, and all new states above the line of latitude 36° 30' would become free states, and below 36° 30' would be slave states. This showed an increase in sectionalism between the north and the south.

A declaration by President James Monroe in 1823 that the Western Hemisphere was to be closed off to further European colonization and that the United States wouldn't interfere in the internal affairs of European nations. Monroe presented the doctrine to both Congress and the world on December 2, 1823. According to Monroe, intervention by European powers in the affairs of the independent New World nations would be considered a danger to the peace and safety of the United States. Monroe also wanted Russia to stay out of the Western Hemisphere. The United States did not have the power to enforce this, though. Other European countries were kept out of Latin America primarily by Britain and their Royal Navy. The Monroe Doctrine did help in the Convention of 1824; Russia gave up its claim to the Oregon Territory and accepted 54 degrees 40' north latitude as the southern Russian America border.

A financial crisis that lasted until 1843. It was caused in part by the inflation that occurred when the Second Bank of the United States closed. The inflation alarmed Jackson, so he passed the Specie Circular in 1836, which meant paper money suddenly had no value. This sharp contraction of credit led to the Panic. It was a six-year recession hitting every part of the country, and the economy didn't show signs of recovery until 1843. The government didn't do much to help, believing panics and depressions were natural in the economic cycle and it was unnecessary for them to aid.

A proclamation issued by President Andrew Jackson in 1836 stating that only gold or silver could be used as payment for public land. This was a result of the massive inflation after the Second Bank of the United States was closed, because there was a widespread use of paper money, which was what Jackson believed to be the main cause of the inflation. He thought stopping the use of paper money would stop the inflation.

The name used by advocates of colonial resistance to British measures during the 1760s and 1770s. Whigs became a prominent political party in the United States during the election of 1836. Merchants, businessmen, and southern planters were the main members, all opposing Andrew Jackson. Recalling the Patriots, who opposed the tyrannical King George III, they were resisting their own tyrannical "King Andrew." They did not win the election of 1836, using the strategy of having four sectional candidates and hoping the total votes would be enough to push the election into the House of Representatives. They were wrong, and Martin Van Buren, Jackson's vice president, became the next president. The Whigs were prepared for the next election, beating out the Democratic candidate in the election of 1840.

Denmark Vesey plotted a slave rebellion in Charleston in 1822 that was discovered by white Southerners. Like Nat Turner's revolt and Gabriel's rebellion, this was a prominent example of organized slave resistance. These slave rebellions proved to white plantation owners that African Americans could only be kept under control by using force. Such rebellions as these caused white plantation owners to be fearful of future revolts and of the possibility of slave insurrection. Charlestonians believed that Denmark Vesey's rebellion was a result of influence from northern anti-slavery opinions. To avoid any further rebellions, Charleston tried to rid its city of all dangerous influences by passing a bill that required that all black seamen in the Charleston harbor be sent to jail. The Charlestonians believed that the free black seamen were the people who were spreading anti slavery opinions.

Nat Turner was a slave who was both literate and a religious preacher. Turner was a leader among other slaves and was treaty kindly by his master Joseph Travis. After one month of being mistreated by an overseer, Turner ran away but then was recaptured his master. After seeing religious visions of whites and blacks in battle, Turner began to plot his revolt. On August 20, 1831 Turner and 5 other slaves began the revolt. They began by killing Travis, and eventually killed a total of 55 white people with the help of 60 African American slaves. Over 40 blacks were executed after this revolt including Turner who was found hiding in the woods after two months. This rebellion caused the Southerners to become extremely fearful of their slaves and to realize the need to be forceful.

The use of interchangeable parts first began during gun manufacturing. This concept was named the "American System" by the British because they had never seen anything like it. Interchangeable parts allowed for repairs to require less effort and to be less expensive because only a replacement for the defective part was needed. Eli Whitney made an agreement with the government to make 10,000 rifles in 28 months in 1798. His goal of creating 10,000 rifles was not met until 10 years after he began and he was still not entirely pleased with the quality of the production. The creation of interchangeable parts allowed for mass production of high quality goods to be sold to common people. This production of goods showed that the Americans believed in democracy and equality. Interchangeable parts were also introduced into the national armory in Springfield, clocks, and sewing machines. They brought national pride to America as mass production began to become more popular.

In 1823 Boston investors created the Lowell factory system. Throughout the 1820s and 1830s women from all over New England came to work at these textile factories. The women worked 12 hours a day and lived with 6-8 others in boarding houses. Lowell was viewed as a sort of education and as a model factory town. Lowell attracted young women by offering supervision on and off the job, strict rules, religious services, social opportunities such as concerts and lectures, and cash. Women came to Lowell to escape isolation, to see the "city ways", and to say money to pay for an education. In the 1830s, Lowell faced competition and had to make wage cuts. The women protested this but were unsuccessful. The educational Lowell was officially done in 1850 when women were replaced with Irish immigrants who were payed much less money.

British did their best to keep their industrial advancements within the country with laws but they weren't successful, like in the case of Samuel Slater · 1789 Samuel Slater (fresh from an apprenticeship in an English cotton factory) snuck out of England to America in disguise · Providence, RI met Moses Brown and William Almy, who had been trying to copy British technology · Built copies of machinery from memory for the men, and the mill (called Slater's mill) began operating in 1790 as the most advanced cotton mill in America · Used children and women as primary workforce and didn't pay them much, as was the practice in England · Many others (merchants, mechanics) followed his lead · His mill was built next to a river to use waterpower

Formed in 1817 by northern religious formers (Quakers were a prominent group) and a number of southern slave owners mostly from the Upper South and border states (ex Henry Clay) · First attempt to "solve" problem of slavery: plan for gradual emancipation of slaves (with compensation to their owners) and resettlement in Africa · Northerners especially wanted to send the 250,000 free blacks from the North to Africa because they were "notoriously ignorant, degraded and miserable, mentally diseased, and broken-spirited" (failing to recognize the discrimination they faced) · It was remarkably ineffective because by 1830 it had only managed to send 1,400 black people to a colony in Liberia, West Africa · African Americans were against it; most free African Americans rejected colonization, instead insisting instead on a commitment to the immediate end of slavery and the equal treatment of black people in America

Native-born Americans, fearing that immigrants would take their jobs and weaken the culture of the Anglo majority · Those that reacted most strongly were Protestants who distrusted the Roman Catholicism practiced by immigrants (the Irish and many Germans) · 1840s there was sporadic rioting in big cities · Supreme Order of the Star-Spangled Banner, a secret anti-foreign society, was formed, and the society turned to politics in the early 1850s, nominating candidates for office as the American or Know-Nothing party Eventually faded in importance as North and South divided before the Civil War, but would periodically return whenever immigration seemed to threaten native-born majority

Challenged power of Congress to create a national bank. Challenged ability of state to place tax on federal bank. Justice John Marshall of the Supreme Court ruled Federal Government had implied power to create bank. State could NOT tax federal institution. Federal laws > state laws. In 1818 the state of Maryland passed legislation to impose taxes on the bank. James W. McCulloch, cashier of the Baltimore branch of the bank, refused to pay the tax. In a unanimous decision, the Supreme Court said that Congress had the power to tax the bank and that Maryland could not tax the national government. Chief Justice Marshall said that states had the power of taxation but the constitution and the laws were superior to the states.

Precedent on whether U.S. Bill of Rights applied to state governments Bill of Rights did not apply to state governments, only federal government Barron co-owned popular wharf in Baltimore sued the mayor of Baltimore for damages, claiming that when the city had created mounds of sand and earth near his wharf making the water too shallow for most vessels. The trial court awarded Barron $4,500, but the appellate court reversed the ruling Justice John Marshall

Former school teacher from Mass. Horrified with conditions for mentally ill and convicted criminals Dedicated life to improving conditions for emotionally disturbed people. In 1840's travelled across country and reported awful treatment caused state legislatures to build new mental hospitals, and improve existing conditions Mental patients began to receive professional treatments at states expense. Claimed reform would save public money in the long run, and the reform was humane and morally right.

During the 19th century there was a dramatic fall in birth rates due to a rapid change in attitudes toward family size and society experiencing industrialization. Children required more training, care, and education in order to succeed in the middle class. Conscience decisions were made to limit family size. Birth rates fell from an average of 7 children per women in 1800 to 5 in 1860. Few couples used mechanical methods of contraception (condoms) instead, people used birth control methods that relied on mutual consent (withdrawal or intercourse during infertile period). When mutual efforts at birth control failed women often sought surgical abortion, which was widely used and advertised in 1830.

On July 19th and 20th 1848 a convention to discuss the social, civil, and religious condition and rights of women was held at Seneca Falls New York. 300 people (men and women) attended. The meeting focused on the Declaration of Sentiments, a petition for women's rights modeled by the Declaration of Independence. This declaration stated that all men and women are created equal. It also detailed a series of resolutions outlining the oppressions men had imposed on women. Men had deprived women of legal rights such as: to own property, have custody of children in cases of divorce, the rights to higher education, full participation in religious worship and activity, and the right to vote. The attendees unanimously approved all of the resolutions except for the right to vote saying that it was too radical.

Nationalism ran high after the end of the Napoleonic wars and the War of 1812. With the election of James Monroe in 1816 it started what one Boston newspaper called "The Era of Good Feelings". The popular votes for Monroe were cast by a younger generation. These younger Americans were excited about the new nation expanding westward, as fervent nationalists they believed their country was entering an era of unlimited prosperity. There was also support of the growth of the national economy. Protecting U.S. industries from European competition and building roads and canals were both aspects of economic nationalism. The creation of the National Road connected the East and the West together helping foster a national community. And in 1817 the construction of the Erie Canal turned New York merchants away from Europe and towards American heartland. This built state commerce and feelings of community.

A senator of Massachusetts who was and outstanding orator of the age. He delivered speeches that listeners said "shook the world" and he spoke in a way that could evoke pity or sadness. He was a lawyer for business interests and the main spokesman for the northern commercial interests. Although he believed in a strong federal government he was a strong popular sectionalist. He supported a national bank and opposed both tariffs of 1816 and 1824. However, he changed his view and supported even higher tariff rates in 1828. In 1830 he debated Robert Hayne of South Carolina on the Federal Union under the Constitution. He attacked the idea of nullification and that states could defy and leave the Union.

The Democratic Party is the same party that exists today. However, they have gone through many changes since then. The Democratic party traces its roots all the way to the Jeffersonian Age. After the election of 1824, when the party split, the Democratic Republicans dropped the "republicans". This party was headed by Jackson and was in domination of politics all the way up toward Lincoln presidency. Some of the many famous people that were a part of the party were Martin Van Buren and James Polk.

This was a period of rapid growth in the speed and convenience of travel. This was a direct result of the Industrial Revolution and was part of the American System. An increase in trade and Connection between the states was a direct cause of this revolutionary time period. · Robert Fulton: Engineer who invented the Steam Boat (Clermont) · Cumberland National Road= Tied together the East and the West. Went from Maryland to Appalachian Mountains. · Erie Canal= canal that connected the Atlantic ocean with the Great Lakes · Railroads= mostly in the north and connected regions that canals couldn't reach

Program proposed by Henry Clay and others to foster national economic growth and interdependence among the geographical sections. It included a protective tariff, a national bank, and internal improvements. The international improvements included the National Road (1811-1834) and the Erie Canal (1817-1825). The Second National bank was chartered in 1816 while the Tariff was in 1816. The international improvements included the National Road (1811-1834) and the Erie Canal (1817-1825). The Second National bank was chartered in 1816 while the Tariff was in 1816

President John Quincy Adams was running for reelection in 1828 and his opponent, Andrew Jackson, brought new democratic politics to the presidency. The Democratic Republican party dropped the Republican and was now called the Democratic Party. Adams and Jackson didn't campaign alone and both had supporters that rallied for them. The Jacksonians used the anger of the southerners and the westerners to get Jackson as the president. They also used other tactics like smearing President Adams and accusing his wife of being born out of wedlock. Adams' supporters retaliated by accusing Jackson's wife of adultery, due to the fact that Jackson had married her before her divorce was final, and they called him an illiterate backwoodsman, and a murderer. All of these battles made this election attract a lot of attention. The voter turnout for the election of 1828 was more than double the amount of people who voted in the election of 1824. Jackson chose John C. Calhoun of South Carolina as his running mate for vice president. This made it look like he would get a lot of Southern people to vote for him but the interesting side to this was that he had actually chose the vice president, John C. Calhoun, of the current president, John Quincy Adams. Jackson won 56% of the popular vote and well over 80% of the South and West. He also won 178 electoral votes compared to Adam's 83 electoral votes. The Richmond and Nashville juntos and the Albany and Concord regencies helped elect him. Another thing that helped him get elected was his reputation as a war hero and man of the western frontier and those things helped him more than on the positions that he took on the issues of the day. Jackson and the Democrats were the first party to maintain a coalition of North, South, and West to get elected because popular appeal wasn't enough to ensure victory.

This was the tariff in 1828 that imposed especially high tariffs on imported textiles and iron and the tariffs ranged from a third to a half of the total value of these products. The state that had been the hardest hit was South Carolina. This tariff was nicknamed the "Tariff of Abominations." Southerners were especially mad because Jackson's supporters in Congress passed this tariff even when the Southerners objected it. They believed that it was unconstitutional because it violated the rights of some of the states and they believed that it was not a truly national measure and instead was a sectional one that helped only some groups while hurting others.

He was the son of President John Adams. He had been the secretary of state under President Monroe's administration before running for President. He was nominated by his state legislature, Massachusetts and was clearly identified with a region, New England. He won 31% of the popular vote and 84 electoral votes to Andrew Jackson's 43% of the popular vote and 99 electoral votes. Neither had the qualifying amount of electoral majority so that meant the House of Representatives had to decide who the winner would be. Henry Clay supported Adams and this helped the House elect Adams the president. Adams then named Henry Clay his secretary of state which later led to the Jackson supporters to accuse them of a "corrupt bargain." A lot of Adams legislative accomplishments of his presidency were scanty. For example when he tried using Henry Clay's American System, he was shot down by the hostile Congress. Things that he did accomplish included obtaining funding for an extension of the National Road west from Wheeling which was an issue that he counted on from western votes. He also failed to play an important role in hemispheric affairs by sending American delegates to a conference in Panama that the Latin American liberator, Simón Bolívar, called because the Southerners blocked this attempt. They believed that it might lead to recognition of the revolutionary black republic of Haiti and this started to show early signs of the emerging two-party system. By the time his term ended in 1828, the Democratic Republicans party had now become the Democratic party with Andrew Jackson as their leading candidate. The voter turnout for the election of 1828 was more than double the amount who turned up in 1824. His supporters depicted Jackson as a murderer, an illiterate back-woodsman, and an adulterer because of the fact that he had married his wife before her divorce was final. Jacksonians fired back by saying that Adams' wife was born out of wedlock. Another interesting turn to the election was that Jackson's running mate for vice president was John C. Calhoun, who was currently Adams' vice president. Adams eventually lost the election because Jackson won 178 electoral votes and 58% of the popular vote and Adams won only 83 electoral votes and 44% of the popular vote. Percents 102?

This was a delayed reaction to the end of the War of 1812 and the Napoleonic Wars. This forced Americans to come to terms with their economic place in a peaceful world. The American shipping boom ended as the British merchant ships resumed trading on routes that they had abandoned during the wars. Also because the European farm production had recovered after the wars, the international demand for American food decreased and American farmers and shippers suffered. Also, the domestic economic conditions made matters worse because of the western land boom which began in 1815. Lands in Mississippi and Alabama were made valuable because there was an international demand for cotton. Also the settlers bought on credit that was aided by loans from small and irresponsible "wildcat" state banks. The "boom" ended when the Second National Bank forced state banks to foreclose on many bad loans which caused small farmers to be ruined. Andrew Jackson would later on build his political campaign on their resentment of the Second National Bank. Also, urban workers suffered from the decline in international trade and the manufacturing failures caused by competition from British imports and they found themselves involved in urban politics and this helped Andrew Jackson's campaign. The southern planters also protested the protective tariffs that were there from the American System and they didn't like that the price of imported goods high even when cotton prices were low. Southerners started to doubt the fairness of a political system in which they were always outvoted. This time showed how the county was transitioning from a Jefferson's republic of yeoman farmers and towards a nation dominated by commerce. All of the anger and resentment were party of the politics of the upcoming Jacksonian era.

The election of 1824 is known to be a "Corrupt Bargain" between John Quincy Adams and Henry Clay. In the Election of 1824, none of the candidates received the majority of the electoral votes. The candidate to receive the most was Andrew Jackson. Due to no one receiving a majority, the vote went to congress. In Congress, Henry Clay wasn't allowed to run because he came in 4th place. Since he couldn't run, he started to help out John Quincy Adams so that Adams could win the election. The plan worked out and when Adams won, Clay became the Secretary of State. Clay had such an impact on the election because he was the speaker of the house so he was able to use his power to influence others to vote for Adams. • This election signifies the end of the Era of Good Feeling. • First election to use the 12th Amendment • All candidates are Democratic Republicans • Federalist party is officially dissolved.

October 12, 1775 - January 10, 1863 Presbyterian minister He was a American Temperance Society co-founder and leader Father of 13 children, many of whom were noted leaders, including Harriet Beecher Stowe, Henry Ward Beecher, Charles Beecher, Edward Beecher, Isabella Beecher Hooker, Catharine Beecher, and Thomas K. Beecher He is credited as a leader of the Second Great Awakening of the United States Born in New Haven, Connecticut, to David Beecher, a blacksmith, and Esther Hawley-Lyman Attended Yale University Began his religious career in Long Island New York Gained popular recognition in 1806, after giving a sermon concerning the duel between Alexander Hamilton and Aaron Burr He started to preach Calvinism when he moved to Litchfield, CT in 1810 He was later called to Hanover Church in Boston where he began preaching against Unitarianism (which was becoming increasingly influential in the area) In 1832, Beecher became pastor of the Second Presbyterian Church of Cincinnati In the same year, he became the first president of Lane Theological Seminary where his mission was to train ministers to win the West for Protestantism Beecher's term at the school came at a time when a number of burning issues, particularly slavery, threatened to divide the Presbyterian Church, the state of Ohio, and the nation In 1834, students at the school debated the slavery issue for 18 consecutive nights (many of them chose abolition) When Beecher opposed their "radical" position and refused to offer classes to African-Americans, a group of about 50 students (who became known as the "Lane Rebels") left the Seminary for Oberlin College The events sparked a growing national discussion of abolition that contributed to the beginning of the Civil War. He was known for his anti-Catholicism views Beecher was charged with heresy by a fellow pastor, Joshua Lacy Wilson He was exonerated by the Presbyterian church, he eventually resigned his post in Cincinnati and went back East to live with his son Henry in Brooklyn, New York in 1850 Lived there until he died in 1863 Had three wives (not at the same time, died and then remarried)

The political movement toward greater democracy for the common man typified by American politician Andrew Jackson and his supporters Jackson's policies followed the era of Jeffersonian democracy which dominated the previous politic citizens In contrast to the Jeffersonian era, Jacksonian democracy promoted the strength of the presidency and executive branch at the expense of Congress, while also seeking to broaden the public's participation in government demanded elected (not appointed) judges and rewrote many state constitutions to reflect the new values In national terms the Jacksonians favored geographical expansion, justifying it in terms of Manifest Destiny There was usually a consensus among both Jacksonians and Whigs that battles over slavery should be avoided The Jacksonian Era lasted roughly from Jackson's 1828 election until the slavery issue became dominant after 1850 and the American Civil War dramatically reshaped American politics as the Third Party System emerged al era The Democratic-Republican Party of the Jeffersonians became factionalized in the 1820s Jackson's supporters began to form the modern Democratic Party they fought the rival Adams and Anti-Jacksonian factions (became the Whigs) term refers to the period of the Second Party System (mid 1830s-1854) when the democratic mood was the spirit of that era Jackson's equal political policy became known as "Jacksonian Democracy", subsequent to ending what he termed a "monopoly" of government by elites Jeffersonians opposed inherited elites but favored educated men, while the Jacksonians gave little weight to education The Whigs were the inheritors of Jeffersonian Democracy in terms of promoting schools and college During the Jacksonian era, the electorate expanded to include (nearly) all white male adult Jacksonian democracy was built on the following general principle: Expanded Suffrage The Jacksonians believed that voting rights should be extended to all white men. By 1820, universal white male suffrage was the norm, and by 1850 nearly all requirements to own property or pay taxes had been dropped. Manifest Destiny This was the belief that white Americans had a destiny to settle the American West and to expand control from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific and that the West should be settled by yeoman farmers. However, the Free Soil Jacksonians, notably Martin Van Buren, argued for limitations on slavery in the new areas to enable the poor white man to flourish; they split with the main party briefly in 1848. The Whigs generally opposed Manifest Destiny and expansion, saying the nation should build up its cities Patronage Also known as the spoils system, patronage was the policy of placing political supporters into appointed offices. Many Jacksonians held the view that rotating political appointees in and out of office was not only the right but also the duty of winners in political contests. Patronage was theorized to be good because it would encourage political participation by the common man and because it would make a politician more accountable for poor government service by his appointees. Jacksonians also held that long tenure in the civil service was corrupting, so civil servants should be rotated out of office at regular intervals. It did lead to the hiring of incompetent and sometimes corrupt officials in the place of competent ones from the other party. Strict Constructionalism Like the Jeffersonians who strongly believed in the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions, Jacksonians initially favored a federal government of limited powers. Jackson said that he would guard against "all encroachments upon the legitimate sphere of State sovereignty". This is not to say that Jackson was a states' rights extremist; indeed, the Nullification Crisis would find Jackson fighting against what he perceived as state encroachments on the proper sphere of federal influence. This position was one basis for the Jacksonians' opposition to the Second Bank of the United States. As the Jacksonians consolidated power, they more often advocated expanding federal power and presidential power in particular. Laissez-faire Economics Complementing a strict construction of the Constitution, the Jacksonians generally favored a hands-off approach to the economy, as opposed to the Whig program sponsoring modernization, railroads, banking, and economic growth. The leader was William Leggett of the Locofocos in New York City. Banking In particular, the Jacksonians opposed government-granted monopolies to banks, especially the national bank, a central bank known as the Second Bank of the United States. Jackson fought to end the government monopoly to the Bank and was opposed by the Whigs, led by Daniel Webster and Nicholas Biddle, the bank chairman. Jackson himself was opposed to all banks, because he believed they were devices to cheat common people; he and many followers believed that only gold and silver could be money. All white men were allowed to vote by the end of the period In Rhode Island the Dorr Rebellion of the 1840s demonstrated that the demand for equal suffrage was broad and strong The fact that a man was now legally allowed to vote did not necessarily mean he routinely did vote; he had to be pulled to the polls, which became the single most important role of the local parties. They systematically sought out potential voters, and brought them to the polls The period was chaotic, politically speaking Federalist Party and One Party System were dead Democratic-Republican Party dissolved into factions State factions developed and died Most former Republicans supported Jackson, most Federalists were against him (there were of course some that didn't follow this pattern) By the late 1830s, Jacksonian Democrats and Whigs were the two major parties By end of presidency, he had ended the bank of the United States, expanded westward, and removed American Indians from the Southeast Jackson was called a tyrant by both ends of political spectrum (specifically John C. Calhoun and Henry Clay) Created a system to clear out elected officials in government of an opposing party and replace them with his supporters as a reward for their electioneering Maysville Road veto in 1830 A part of Clay's American System, the bill would have allowed for federal funding of a project to construct a road linking Lexington and the Ohio River (the entirety of which would be in the state of Kentucky). His primary objection was based on the fact that it was contained in one state. He argued it was not the Federal government's job to fund projects of such a local nature, and/or those lacking a connection to the nation as a whole. The debates in Congress reflected two competing visions of federalism. The Jacksonians saw the union strictly as the cooperative aggregation of the individual states, while the Whigs saw the entire nation as a distinct entity

The market revolution (1815-1824) was the result of 3 different events: the Transportation Revolution, commercialization, and industrialization. The new methods of transportation allowed westerners to send their products to the east, commercialization created a cash market, and industrialization required new machinery that built up the market. People could no longer rely on home-made goods; they needed goods from the market and were dependent on other people. Instead of bartering with neighbors, people relying on the market for goods that they needed. Farmers provided food for workers, who provided farmers with mass-produced goods. Because of the market revolution, the standard of living increased but there were challenges with the economy. Wages increased, but the gap between rich and poor also increased. Slavery did not die down as expected, because of the extreme increase in cotton production.

The putting out system was basically home manufacturing, which led up to the machines and factories that communities depended on. The system took place in private homes under the supervision of a merchant who "put out" the raw materials, paid a certain amount to the worker per finished piece, and then sold the completed piece to the market. An important aspect of the system is the fact that there was divided labor; instead of one person making a whole item, different people would make parts of the item and someone else would put it together. The system put control in the hands of the merchant capitalists who could decide costs, goals, and designs of the products. The system could either be a central workshop system in one city/town, or more dispersed over a small region or even the whole country. An example of the putting out system is the shfoe industry in Lynn, Massachusetts.

After spending years in search of private funds for his invention, Samuel F. B. Morse finally received financing from the federal government for a telegraph. He sent his first message from Washington to Baltimore in 1844. Soon, messages in Morse code would be used to relay messages across the continent. Because of the invention, information could be passed along much faster, and news was spread more easily. Events going on across the country would be much more publicized because of the telegraph. The sense of community in the country increased because of the information that could be spread.

In the campaign of 1840, the Whigs were determined to beat the Democrats. The Whigs nominated the former Indian fighter and governor of the Indiana territory, William Henry Harrison, a man much like Andrew Jackson. They also nominated a southerner, John Tyler for vice president. Their campaign slogan was "Tippecanoe and Tyler too" because Tippecanoe was the famous battle that Harrison won. The Whigs reached out to the common people in their campaign and claimed that Martin Van Buren, Harrison's opponent was a bad candidate for president because they claimed he was a man of privilege and aristocratic tastes. The campaign resulted in an overwhelming win for Harrison and one of the largest voter turnouts ever, 80%.

The print revolution in America was prominent in connection with political parties, but had effects far beyond those of politics. Newspapers and pamphlets created a variety of popular cultures. In 1826 the American Tract Society installs the first steam-powered press in the United States, a machine which increased the speed with which prints could be made (as opposed to the hand press). The greatest growth occurring during the Print Revolution was in newspapers. Newspapers and pamphlets fostered a variety of popular cultures. Throughout the country a small middle-class audience existed for literary magazines and sentimental magazines and novels (mainly amongst women). In addition to print communication expanding, came the invention of the telegraph.

Martin Van Buren was the vice president under Andrew Jackson from the years 1833-1837, and served as president from 1837- 1841. Van Buren and his role in the Albany Regency (New York state politics) was key in the development of the democratic party. He was elected to the senate in the year 1821. By 1827 he had become recognized as the principle northern leader for Andrew Jackson, and a part of the "Kitchen Cabinet", eventually leading to him becoming Jackson's most trusted advisor. In 1832 he was voted to be Jackson's vice president, and in 1836 won the presidency for himself. His presidency was marked by the Panic of 1837 (greatly impacted by Jackson's destruction of the Second National Bank). In an attempt to end the Panic of 1837 Van Buren fought to establish an independent treasury system to handle government transactions. Additionally, due to his inclination to support the anti-slavery movement, he blocked the annexation of Texas, convinced that it would add to slave territory. Van Buren was defeated by the Whigs in the election of 1840, and was an unsuccessful candidate for the free soil party in 1848

The Albany Regency was led by Martin Van Buren, and was made up of a closely knit group of his friends and allies who practiced Van Buren's new political principles. Van Buren gathered disgruntled Jeffersonian Republicans to form the "Bucktail Faction" (nicknamed after the Indian inspired insignia of the tail of the buck worn on the hats of the members of the party). By 1821 at the New York state constitutional convention they made up ¾ of the party, and voted to curtail the powers of the governor. They also enacted nearly total male suffrage (all adult male citizens who paid state or local taxes, served in the militia, or worked on state roads- over 4 / 5 of the population). In response to the state's growing and increasingly diverse population, they then formed a new kind of political party- the Albany Regency. It was the belief of the Albany Regency that political parties should be democratic and not be dominated by an elite group. They also believed that party members would have to abide by majority rule and party loyalty rather than personal opinions and friendship. The party published it's own newspaper called the "Albany Argus" in which they publicized party decisions, reached by discussion in legislative caucus. The Albany Regency was fully formed by the time that Van Buren left for Washington in 1821, and ran New York State politics for the next twenty years.

Ralph Waldo Emerson was famous as a writer and lecturer, popularizing transcendentalism. Transcendentalism is a romantic philosophical theory, claiming that there is an ideal, intuitive reality transcending human life. In 1836 Emerson met with like-minded intellectuals who would eventually form the transcendentalist club which would serve as the center of the transcendentalist movement. Emerson was seen as a champion of individuality, and encouraged that Americans create a form of literature all their own, separate from that of England. In his writing he developed the ideas of individuality and freedom, the ability for mankind to realize anything, and the connection between the soul and the surrounding world.

Arising in the 1800s, it was one of the most significant occurrences in the history of American religion. Countless people were converted and many churches were changed and revived. Not only affecting religion, the movement influenced many other aspects such as prison reform, the women's rights movement, abolishment of slavery, advancements in literature, and reform in education. Women's roles in the church were greatly affected and they deeply encouraged the religious revival, setting up many organizations and charities. Mainly focused on personal responsibility, both as an individual and in response to injustice and suffering.

A term used by Jackson's opponents to describe the state banks that the federal government used for new revenue deposits in an attempt to destroy the second bank of the united states; the practice continued after the charter for the second bank expired in 1836. Financial institutions friendly to Andrew Jackson's administration that received federal funds when he vetoed the second national bank's recharter in 1832 and removed all government deposits from it.

The spoils system was a method of appointing officials to the government of the United States of America based on political connections rather than on impersonal measures of merit. The name was derived from the phrase "to the victor go the spoils". Andrew Jackson introduced it as a democratic measure informed by his understanding of the nature of party politics and democracy. He considered that popular election gave the victorious party a mandate to select officials from its own ranks. Opponents considered it vulnerable to incompetence and corruption. Jackson fired many federal workers and replace them with his supporters The employees he fired protested that Jackson was acting like a tyrant, but Jackson said new set of employees would be good for democracy

American transcendentalism was an important movement in philosophy and literature that flourished during the early to middle years of the nineteenth century. It began as a reform movement in the Unitarian church, based on the ideas of an indwelling God and the significance of intuitive thought. It was a belief that people can reach a spiritual state by utilizing their intuition, and not by learned doctrines and religious teachings Henry David Thoreau is most known for his journal named "Walden". "Walden" was Thoreau's first-hand experience at living and experiencing transcendentalism and naturalism. Thoreau showed how he lived simply and with self-reliance for two years. He explained what it was like to plant and harvest his own food, benefit from the labor of his own hands, and meditate and think within nature.Through his writings, Thoreau was able to impart his beliefs on how people should live in order to transcend the current world.

The period from Jackson's inauguration as president up to the Civil War is known as the Jacksonian Era or the Era of the Rise of the Common Man. This period constituted great change and issues warranting debate, such as slavery, Indians, westward mobility, and balance of power between the executive and the legislative branches of government. The United States had no strict class system. Most Americans identified themselves into the middle class. The common man now had the right to vote, without the distinction of owning land, nominating candidates to office, and rewarding the politicians that represented the common man's interests. The 1820s, a time of transition and transformation called for a man who could guide the people through the changeable age. The election of 1828 signaled a unique change; never before had a man who made his name and fortune outside the thirteen colonies been elected to the office of president.

During the Nullification Crisis Jackson saw it as a challenge and was determined to get his way. Jackson immediately offered his thought that nullification was tantamount to treason and quickly dispatched ships to Charleston harbor and began strengthening federal fortifications there. Congress supported the president and passed a Force Bill in early 1833 which authorized Jackson to use soldiers to enforce the tariff measures. It served as a threat to South Carolina specifically that he was willing to use force in order to make sure the union stayed together. It was ultimately what convinced South Carolina to back off.

Most new western states extended the right to vote to all white males over 21. Kentucky entered the Universal Male Suffrage in 1792, Tennessee in 1796, and Ohio in 1803, they all entered with low tax payer qualifications. 1820, mot older states followed in their suit. Their reasons were because of competition for voters between parties or functions of parties (ex. Bucktails and Clintionians in New York), It was also because in the War of 1812 property less men were able to fight, but not vote. RI, VA, and Louisiana did not liberate the voting qualifications until later, but in 1840, 90% of white adult men could vote. governors and presidential electors were chosen by vote instead of the small group of state legislators. *none of these liberation's in voting applied to African Americans, or women.

The official policy of the U.S. was to convert the Native Americans. Those who didn't had the option of moving to New Territory West of the Mississippi. The government did sign many removal treaties with the Indian Nations but 5 remained, the Cherokees, the Chicksaws, the Choctaws, the Creeks, and the Seminoles. 5 groups lived in GA, Alabama, Mississippi, and FL. All accept Seminoles wanted to live in peace with the whites. They all resisted voluntary removal. The Cheerokes were most adapted to white ways, they had farms, businesses, grain and lumber mills, and plantations with slave. They were very eager to accept white ways. 1830's legislatures of GA and AL and Miss. voted to invalidate federal treaties with the Indians, and in 1830 they passed the Indian Removal Act, it was relocation by force. Cherokee vs Georgia (1831) and Worcester vs. Georgia (1832) ruled in favor of the Cherokees. Saying that they could not be forced off their land. Jackson however, ignored this and continued support for the removal. In 1830 Choctaws moved and the last of the Creeks moved in 1836. In 1838 the final removal, The Trail of Tears, was of the Cherokees. An army of 7,000 men escorted them to the New Territory. On the way there ¼ of 16,000 Cherokees died, hence the name.

an evangelist who began a series of dramatic revival meetings he converted all classes of people to the evangelist religion and was made famous by his gatherings in 1830 Finney preached in Rochester for six months and his wife, Lydia unconverted and mobilized women in Rochester Under their guidance, prayer meeting were held in the schools and businesses and impromptu religious services were held in people's homes As a result, middle class women carried out Finney's message of prayer which they pleaded to their husbands, in which found evangelism's stress on self-discipline and individual achievement to help them to adjust to new business conditions.

There was a huge growth in urban cities between 1820 and 1860, due to several different factors. One was the Transportation Revolution, which connected small towns to major shipping markets, like the towns that ran along the Erie Canal or new railway lines. Another reason was the many immigrants at that time, who nearly all lived in the extremely poor sections of the city. The separation between the rich and poor in the cities helped to create a more divided class system in America, which lead to mob riots, urban violence, and disease. The slums of New York City were comprised of nearly all immigrants, free blacks, and criminals. Not exactly a place where you'd want to live

Robert R. Livingston and Robert Fulton, the inventors of the steamboat, were granted the exclusive right to steam boat navigation in New York State. They gave Aaron Ogden permission to run his own company. However, Thomas Gibbons was running his own steamboat business from New Jersey to New York, and had an Act of Congress stating he could. The question was: Could the Act of Congress override a state monopoly? The answer was: Yes. John Marshall ruled in favor of Gibbons, stating that the New York monopoly went against Congress, the overruling force in economic matters.

In 1769 King George the III chartered Dartmouth College. In 1815, the State of New Hampshire altered the charter so that it went from a private school to public school. The trustees of the college brought them to court, saying that changing their charter without their permission was unconstitutional. The Supreme Court ruled in favor of the college, saying that New Hampshire had no right to mess with private contracts.

August 1813 The Redsticks attacked Fort Mims on Alabama river and Andrew Jackson led troops from Tennessee and Kentucky Militias who combined with the Creek, which consisted of the Cherokees, the Choctaws, and Chickasaws. In 1814 Jackson demand land concessions from the Creeks after victory, requesting 23 million acres or more than half the Creek domain. The treaty of Fort Jackson in 1814 confirmed his demands. Battle of New Orleans in 1814 was his best victory because it led Americans to believe the defeat the British. His presidency aka the Jacksonian era (1829 -1837) included the rise of a democratic party, politics moving away from only rich men and merchants, universal male suffrage: all white men age permitting could vote, party nominating conventions where everyone had the right to select nominees, two party systems, a rise of the 3rd part and more elected officers. 2 events in his presidency were the Peggy Eaton affair and Indian removal act of 1830

The years following the end of the War of 1812 have been called the "era of good feelings" because of their apparent lack of partisan political strife. In the Election of 1816, James Monroe decisively defeated the last of the Federalist candidates. Monroe was overwhelmingly reelected in the Election of 1820 with no opposition whatsoever. Domestic politics under Monroe revolved around three main issues: The Second Bank of the United States Henry Clay's American System Missouri and slavery Monroe's major foreign affairs issues involved the following: Spain and the Seminoles Diplomacy under Monroe The Monroe Doctrine The economic life of the country was impacted by technological developments in several overlapping transportation eras: The Turnpike Era, the Canal Craze, the Railroad Era and the Steamboat Era. Changes in the ways Americans moved people and goods was paralleled by similar changes in the way products were produced—the United States was a full partner in the First Industrial Revolution. At about the same time that the Industrial Revolution was starting in the North, events were occurring that would transform the South. A cotton culture emerged in that region, which revived the institution of slavery.

He was a lawyer, politician and skilled orator who represented Kentucky separately in both the Senate and in the House of Representatives. He served three different terms as Speaker of the United States House of Representatives and was also Secretary of State from 1825 to 1829. Clay was a dominant figure in both the First and Second Party systems. As a leading war hawk, he favored war with Britain and played a significant role in leading the nation to war in 1812. Later he was involved in the "Corrupt Bargain" of 1824, after which he was appointed Secretary of State by newly elected President John Quincy Adams. Andrew Jackson never forgave Clay because of this "corrupt bargain". He came up with the American System, fighting for an increase in tariffs to promote industry in the United States, the use of federal funding for internal improvements (national roads and canals) and a strong national bank. Dubbed the "Great Compromiser," Clay brokered important compromises during the Nullification Crisis and on the slavery issue. As part of the "Great Triumvirate" or "Immortal Trio," along with his colleagues Daniel Webster and John C. Calhoun, he was instrumental in formulating the Missouri Compromise of 1820 . The American System was one of Henry Clay's greatest ideas. It reformed three major parts of a successful economical society; transportation, tariffs, and a banking system with a national currency.

Political struggles between Andrew Jackson and supporters of the second bank of America. In 1790 when Jackson lost a lot of money in a speculative venture, he began to hate the bank which caused conflicts between him and Nicholas Biddle and ruined their reputations and economy. July 1832 Jackson vetoed Henry Clay's and Daniel Webster's application to recharter the bank. July that same month he denounced the bank as unconstitutional and harmful to states' rights. When he was reelected in 1832, the bank wars continued because he transferred the banks 10 million in government deposits that favored state banks.

From South Carolina, the is Republican leader reversed his position on the American system. Originally, he supported the protective tariff of 1816 because it was supposed to help the entire nation. As higher tariffs were added,he openly challenged them. An example of this is the Nullification Crisis over the Tariffs of 1828 and 1832. In 1812 Calhoun was an outspoken war hawk and nationalist, but by 1828 he became a leading champion of states, and wanted the preservation and expansion of slavery. He greatly supported states' rights, which is clear during the Nullification Crisis as he drew attention to this issue. He was the vice president to Andrew Jackson, but was not included in Jackson's "kitchen cabinet". He actually resigned his position after the Nullification Crisis because he had no hope of becoming president, and he had lost all respect and influence with Jackson. The Peggy Eaton affair also led him to resign because of the tensions it caused between him and Jackson.

Utopian communities are basically an ideal society. In the 1800s, this dealt with the many reform movements. These included the abolitionist movement, universal male suffrage, women's rights, the Second Great Awakening, Prison reform, the temperance movement, and a school reform. However, these were not supported in all areas of the country. Through this, the idea of utopian communities came about because people considered the competitive economy dangerous and they felt that a utopia could exist in small spaces. Utopian communities aimed to perfect social relationships; reform the institutions of marriage and private property; and balance political, occupational, and religious influences.

constitutional doctrine holding that a state has legal right to declare a national law null and void within its borders; Madison and Jefferson proposed it in the Virginia and Kentucky Resolves opposing Alien Sedition in 1798. Hartford Convention 1814 opposition of war was culminated. convention insisted that a state had the right to "interpose authority" to protect its citizens against unconstitutional federal laws. Nullification threat was ignored from Hartford because peace with Britain was announced; The Nullification Crisis occurred during Jackson's presidency in the early 1830s. This was an issue of states' rights vs. federal power. Due to sectional crisis and a hatred for high tariffs, South Carolina held a special convention in which they nullified the Tariff of 1828 and 1832, and they also attempted to organize a militia in case the federal government tried to collect taxes, and they threatened to secede. This lead to the Force bill and the Proclamation of South Carolina. This was the most serious threat to national unity that the US had ever experienced.