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when and how to express emotions. This ability is called emotional regulation.

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The major psychosocial accomplishment of early childhood is learning

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Between 3 and 6 years of age, according to Erikson, children are in the stage of Initiative versus Guilt. In the process, they develop a positive self-concept and feelings of pride in their accomplishments.

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Initiative Versus Guilt

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good/bad qualities will disappear. This protective optimism begins about age 3 but often disappears during adolescence.

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Young children are confident that their

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benefits from myelination of the limbic system, growth of the prefrontal cortex, and a longer attention span.

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Emotional Development

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children begin to feel guilt if they realize their own mistakes. Many people believe that guilt is a more mature emotion than shame because the former emotion is internalized.

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Erikson also believed that during this stage,

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For the most part, children enjoy learning, playing, and practicing for their own joy; that is, they are intrinsically motivated. The importance of this type of motivation is seen when children invent the converse with imaginary friends.

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Intrinsically Motivated

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Motivation that comes from the outside is called extrinsic motivation. Providing reinforcement for something a person already enjoys doing may diminish intrinsic motivation.

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Extrinsic Motivation

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in emotions considered most in need of control. They differ in control strategies as well.

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Cultures differ

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An illness or disorder that involves the mind is called psychopathology. Children who have externalizing problems lash out at other people or things through internalizing problems tend to be fearful and withdrawn.

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Psychopathology

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usually develop emotional regulation ahead of boys. Girls generally are better than boys at regulating their externalizing emotions, but they are less successful with internalizing ones. For both sexes, though, extreme reactions predict future psychopathology.

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Girls

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in the brain's prefrontal cortex are partly responsible for the greater capacity for self-control that occurs at about age 4 or 5.

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Neurological advances

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may make boys more likely to externalize and girls more likely to internalize, a difference that is probably genetic.

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Neurological and hormonal effects

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Young children play best with peers, that is, people of about the same age and social status.

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Peers

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play becomes more social and more affected by their physical setting and culture.

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As children grow older

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television, which has resulted in their displaying advanced sexual awareness.

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Another cultural shift that has changed the nature of children's play is increasing prevalence of

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The developmentalist who distinguished five kinds of play is Mildred Parten.

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Midlred Parten

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solitary play, onlooker play, parallel play, associative play, and cooperative play.

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These include:

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in which a child plays alone

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Solitary Play

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in which a child watches other children play

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Onlooker Play

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in which children parallel play together without interacting

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Parallel Play

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in which children interacting

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Associative Play

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in which children play together and takes turns.

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Cooperative Play

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correlates with peer acceptance and a health self-concept and may help regulate emotions. The type of active play that looks rough is called rough-and-tumble play.

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Active Play

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is the positive facial expression that characterizes the play face. Many believe that this type of play helps the prefrontal cortex to develop, as children learn to regulate emotions, practice social skills and strengthen their bodies.

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A distinctive feature of this form of play, which is universal

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In sociodramatic play, children act out various roles and plots in stories of their own creation. This type of play helps them explore and rehearse social roles and to develop a self-concept in a non-threatening context, for example.

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Sociodramatic

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A significant influence on early psychosocial growth is the style of parenting that characterizes a child's family life.

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Parenting

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The early research on parenting styles, which was conducted by Diana Baumrind, found that parents varied in four dimensions, and their discipline, their communication, and their expectations for maturity.

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Diana Baumrind

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Parents who adopt the authoritarian style demand unquestioning obedience from their children. In this style of parenting, nurturance tends to be low maturity demands are high and parent-child communication tends to be low.

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Authoritarian

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Parents who adopt the permissive style make few demands on their children and are lax in discipline. Such parents are nurturant, communicate well and make few maturity demands.

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Permissive

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Parents who adopt the authoritative style set limits and enforce rules but also listen to their children. Such parents make high maturity demands, communicate well and are nurturant.

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Authoritative Style

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Parents who are indifferent toward their children have adopted the neglectful/uninvolved style.

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Neglectful

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follow-up studies indicate that children raised by authoritarian parents are likely to be obedient but not especially happy and those raise dby permissive parents are more likely to be articulate, successful, happy with themselves and generous with others.

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Although this classification is generally regarded as too simplistic

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An important factor in the effectiveness of parenting style is the child's temperament.

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Temperament

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a strong influence on disciplinary techniques. However, discipline methods and family rules are less important than parental warmth, support, and concern.

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Culture exerts

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factors may be more important than ethnic ones.

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Socioeconomic

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When the original research on caregiving styles was conducting, most young children were cared for by their parents. Now most children in the United States have nonparental caregivers as well.

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Parents

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In general, young children learn more from authoritarian teachers who are perceived as warmer and more loving.

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Authoritarian Teachers

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All media can be harmful, especially when the content is violent.

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Violent

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Most young children in the United States spend more than 3 hours each day using some sort of media.

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Media

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The new media are not always harmful. Some children may learn basic literacy from educational program, especially if their parents watch them and reinforce the lessons.

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Literacy

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According to the displacement hypothesis, whatever time children devote to electronic media reduces time spent in social and educational activities.

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Displacement

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begin when children learned games with rules at about age 7. Today some researchers believe moral development begins during infancy.

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Piaget believed that moral development

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contends that morality develops as children learn the values of their community.

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The "nurture" perspective

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suggests that morality is genetic, an outgrowth of natural bonding, attachment, and cognitive maturation.

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The nature perspective

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The ability to truly understand the emotions of another, called empathy, often leads to sharing, helping, and other examples of prosocial behavior. In contrast, dislike for others, or antipathy, may lead to actions that are destructive or deliberately hurtful. Such actions are called antisocial behavior.

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Empathy

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By age 4 or 5, most children van be deliberately prosocial or antisocial. This occurs as a result of brain maturation, emotional regulation, theory of mind, and interactions with caregivers.

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Brain maturation

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distinguish four types of aggression, instrumental, used to obtain or retain an object or privilege; reactive, used in angry retaliation against an intentional or accident act committed by a peer, relationship, which takes the form of insults or social rejection and bullying used in an unprovoked attack on a peer.

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Developmentalists

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The form of aggression that is common among 2-year-olds who often want something they don't have is instrumental aggression. Of greater concern is bullying aggression, which is not rare among young children by should be stopped before school age.

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Instrumental Aggression

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Theory of mind, egocentrism, fast-mapping, and young children are not logical.

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State four specific recommendations for the use of discipline that are redived from developmental research findings.

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seems to increase the possibility of long0term aggression and temporarily increases obedience.

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Physical punishment

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Another method of discipline, in which children's shame, guilt, and gratitude are used to control their behavior, is psychological control. This method of discipline has been linked to children's decreased achievement creativity and social acceptance.

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Psychological Control

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The disciplinary technique most often used in North America is the time-out, in which is a misbehaving child is asked to sit quietly without toys or playmates. Experts suggest a period of one minute for each year of a child's age.

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Time-Out

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Another common practice involves the parents explaining to the child why the behavior was wrong, called induction.

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Induction

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with culture. Physical punishment is illegal in many developed nations. The United States may have more authoritarian parents than other nations do. Spanking is more common in the south and parents in low income families.

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Worldwide, child discipline practices vary

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distinguish between biological or sex gender, differences in the roles and behavior of males and females that are prescribed by the culture.

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Social scientists

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many children become quite rigid in their ideas of sex and gender.

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By age 5

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Freud called the period from age 3 to 5 the phallic stage. According to his view, boys in this stage develop sexual feelings about their mothers and become jealous of their fathers. Freud called this phenomenon the oedipus complex. Boys also develop, in self-defense, a powerful conscience called the superego.

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Phallic Stage

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According to psychoanalytic theory, children of both sexes resolve their guilt and fear through identification with their same-sex parent.

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Identification

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According to behaviorism, young children develop a sense of gender by being reinforced for behaviors deemed inappropriate for their sex and punished for behaviors deemed inappropriate.

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Behaviorism

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Behaviorists also maintain that children learn gender-appropriate behavior not only through direct reinforcement but also through social learning.

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Social Learning

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Cognitive theorist focus on children's understanding of male-female differences. This understanding is called a gender schema.

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Gender Schema

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Sexual attraction is crucial for humankind's most basic urge, reproduction, according to evolutionary theory.

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Evolutionary Theory

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The behaviors appropriate for each gender are determined by culture, not by biology, according to the sociocultural theory. This theory points out that some of the distinctions are tried to general patterns of social organization.

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Sociocultural Theory

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evolutionary theory would encourage male-female differences and sociocultural theory would conclude that sex differences and sociocultural theory would conclude that sex differences are changeable if they interfere with other values.

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Therefore,

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the idea that a person should combine the best of both sexes is referred to as androgyny.

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Androgyny

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A little girl who says she wants her mother to go on vacation so that she can marry her father is voicing a fantasy consistent with the electra complex.

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Electra Complex

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believes that almost all sexual patterns are learned rather than inborn. He is clearly a strong adherent of behaviorism.

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Leonardo

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