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Home Page Flashcards Chapter 1: Thinking Critically With Psychological Science - Flashcards

Chapter 1: Thinking Critically With Psychological Science – Flashcards

Trina Garrison
7 July 2022
question
Intuition & common sense
answer
-Many people believe that intuition and common sense are enough to bring forth answers regarding human nature. -Intuition and common sense may aid queries, but they are not free of error.
question
Limits of Intuition
answer
Personal interviews may rely too much on their "gut feelings" when meeting with job applicants.
question
Hindsight bias
answer
-The "I-knew-it-all-along" phenomenon. -After learning an outcome of an event, many people believe they could have predicted that very outcome. We only know that dot.com stocks would plummet after they actually DID plummet.
question
Overconfidence
answer
-Sometimes we think we know more than we ACTUALLY know. -People said it would take about 10 sec to solve an anagram, yet on average they took about 3 mins.
question
The Scientific Attitude
answer
Composed of curiosity (passion for exploration), skepticism (doubting and questioning), and humility (ability to accept responsibility when wrong).
question
Critical thinking
answer
-Does not accept arguments and conclusions blindly. -It examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.
question
How psychologists ask and answer questions.
answer
-Psychologists, like all scientists, use the "scientific method" to construct theories (ideas) that organize, summarize and simplify observations.
question
The Scientific Method
answer
-Identify the problem -Design the study -Perform the study -Interpret the results
question
Conducting Research
answer
-5 steps for conducting research 1. Form a research question 2. Form a hypothesis 3. Test the hypothesis 4. Analyze the results 5. Drawing conclusions --6. Replication
question
1. Form a research question
answer
-Many questions come from daily observations/experiences. -Questions are best directed toward behavior which can be measured easily. -Ex: what do cats and dogs do when placed together? -Questions can come from folklore, common knowledge, and psychological theory.
question
2. Form a hypothesis
answer
-This is an educated guess trying to answer the research question. -Because this is an educated guess, the question must be tested.
question
3. Test the hypothesis
answer
-Psychological knowledge rests on CAREFULLY examined human experience. -A variety of methods are used to test a hypothesis. Decide what info is needed to test hypothesis, -Gather info -Examine info -Is info sufficient to test the hypothesis?
question
4.Analyze the results
answer
-This asks what the findings mean. -Psychologists may spend weeks, months, even years gathering info and testing. -Psychologists look for patterns and relationships in the data then must decide if the data supports their hypothesis.
question
5. Draw conclusions
answer
-Draw conclusions based on analysis of the research. -Used to help with validation of the original question. -If the conclusion does not support the hypothesis then question needs to be revised. -An open mind is ESSENTIAL.
question
Replication
answer
-The study MUST be repeated and the results must be the same. -This is to rule out random occurrence. -If results are different then results from the 1st study are questioned. -Repeating the study may involve using different participants, slightly varied circumstances.
question
New questions
answer
-New questions often develop due to the study. Questions not thought of before. -When new questions occur, then the process begins all over.
question
Theory
answer
-A theory is an explanation that integrates principles and organizes and predicts behavior or events. -Ex: low self esteem contributes to depression
question
Hypothesis
answer
A testable prediction, often prompted by a theory.
question
Research observations
answer
Research would require us to administer tests of self esteem and depression. Individual who score low on a self esteem test and high on a depression test would confirm our hypothesis.
question
Case study
answer
-A technique in which 1 person is studied IN DEPTH to reveal underlying behavioral principles. -Case studies examines a phenomenon intensively in a specific individual, group, or situation. -Used when the phenomenon under investigation is new or rare.
question
Case study method
answer
-You may need to interview the client, people who know them to discover their background. -Freud's psychodynamic theory used a lot of case study. -Caution must be used. It CANNOT replicate people's memories and are filled with memory gaps.
question
Survey
answer
-A technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes, opinions, or behaviors of people usually done by questioning a representation, random sample of people.
question
The survey method
answer
-Gathering info by asking people directly. -People are asked to respond to a series of questions. -May be written questionnaires. -May interview orally-telephone, in person. -May not be accurate, people may lie!
question
Survey: wording effects
answer
Wording can change the results of a survey
question
Survey: random sampling
answer
-If each member of a population has an equal chance of inclusion into a sample, it is called a random sample (unbiased). If the survey sample is biased, its results are not valid.
question
Naturalistic observation
answer
Observing and recording the behavior of animals in the wild and recording self-seating patterns in a multiracial school lunch room constitute naturalistic observation.
question
Naturalistic observation method
answer
-Often used with children -You observe and record the subject as they interact with peers or other (adults). -Often done in the field - home, school, office, restaurant, and only place they spend time.
question
The laboratory-observation method
answer
-A laboratory is any place that allows for observation. Many are informal. -Can be used to control the environment. -Skinner used laboratory to observe his rats.
question
Correlation
answer
When 1 trait or behavior accompanies another.
question
Scatterplot
answer
-A graph comprises of points that are generated by values of 2 variables. The slope of the points depicts the direction, while the amount of scatter depicts the strength of the relationship.
question
Correlation and causation
answer
Correlation does not mean causation!
question
Illusory correlation
answer
The perception of a relationship where no relationship actually exists. Parents conceive children after adoption.
question
Experimentation
answer
Like other sciences, experimentation is the backbone of psychological research
question
DV
answer
-A factor that may change in response to an independent variable. In psychology, it is usually a behavior or mental process. -Many factors influence our behavior. Experiments manipulate factors that interest us, while other factors are kept under control.
question
IV
answer
-A factor manipulated by the experimenter. The effect of the IV is the FOCUS of the study. -Effect generated by the manipulated factors isolate cause and effect relationships.
question
Experimental Method
answer
Random sampling and random assignment
question
Random sampling
answer
Ensures that everyone in the population has an equal chance at being in the experiment
question
Random assignment
answer
Spreads the uncontrolled subject variables evenly between groups.
question
Experiment research
answer
Experimental group and control group
question
Experimental group
answer
The group that receives the treatment (group that watches violent TV)
question
Control group
answer
The group that receives no treatment, or some other treatment (group that watches play TV or no TV)
question
Single-blind studies
answer
-Participants DO NOT know if they are in the experimental group or the control group. -Means you DO NOT know if the meds given are real or sugar pills.
question
Double-blind studies
answer
-In evaluating drug therapies, patients and experimenters's assistants should remain unaware of which patients had the real treatment and which patients had the placebo treatment. -Required by the Food and Drug Administration -You are assigned at random. -Idea to keep bias out.
question
Placebo effect
answer
A substance or treatment that has no effect except the clients belief.
question
Statistical reasoning
answer
Analyze and interpret data allowing us to see what the unaided eye missed.
question
Statistical reasoning in everyday life!
answer
-Doubt big, round, undocumented numbers as they can be misleading and before long, become public misinfo.
question
Describing data
answer
-A meaningful description of data is important in research. Misrepresenting may lead to incorrect conclusions.
question
Measures of central tendency
answer
-Mode, mean, and median
question
Measure of variation
answer
-Range and standard deviation
question
Standard deviation
answer
-A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean
question
Normal curve
answer
A symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes that distribution of many types of data (normal distribution). Most scores fall near the mean.
question
Making inferences
answer
A statistical statement of how frequently an obtained result occurred by experimental manipulation or by chance.
question
When is an observed difference reliable?
answer
1. Representative samples are better than biased samples. 2. Less variable observations are more reliable than more variable ones. 3. More cases are better than fewer cases.
question
When is a difference significant?
answer
-When sample averages are reliable and the difference between them is relatively large, we say the difference has statistical significance. It is probably not due chance variation.
question
Ethnics in research
answer
-Research with people -Confidentiality -Informed consent -Deception and debriefing -Animal research -Ethnics using data
question
Ethical issues
answer
-Ethics are standards for proper and responsible behavior for psychologists to follow. -Idea id to lessen people's suffering. -APA provides guidelines on making a study ethical.
question
Confidentiality
answer
-Records of clients and participants are confidential = DO NOT share, do not gossip. -Have respect for privacy
question
Informed consent
answer
Means that participants have been explained what is going on and they agree, or consent, to participate.
question
Deception
answer
Sometimes we have to use deceptions such as a blind study where participants are not aware of the treatment.
question
Research with animals
answer
-Controversial -Psychologists use animals ONLY when where there is no alternative and the benefits outweigh the harm. -Some studies may be harmful -PETA
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question
Intuition & common sense
answer
-Many people believe that intuition and common sense are enough to bring forth answers regarding human nature. -Intuition and common sense may aid queries, but they are not free of error.
question
Limits of Intuition
answer
Personal interviews may rely too much on their "gut feelings" when meeting with job applicants.
question
Hindsight bias
answer
-The "I-knew-it-all-along" phenomenon. -After learning an outcome of an event, many people believe they could have predicted that very outcome. We only know that dot.com stocks would plummet after they actually DID plummet.
question
Overconfidence
answer
-Sometimes we think we know more than we ACTUALLY know. -People said it would take about 10 sec to solve an anagram, yet on average they took about 3 mins.
question
The Scientific Attitude
answer
Composed of curiosity (passion for exploration), skepticism (doubting and questioning), and humility (ability to accept responsibility when wrong).
question
Critical thinking
answer
-Does not accept arguments and conclusions blindly. -It examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.
question
How psychologists ask and answer questions.
answer
-Psychologists, like all scientists, use the "scientific method" to construct theories (ideas) that organize, summarize and simplify observations.
question
The Scientific Method
answer
-Identify the problem -Design the study -Perform the study -Interpret the results
question
Conducting Research
answer
-5 steps for conducting research 1. Form a research question 2. Form a hypothesis 3. Test the hypothesis 4. Analyze the results 5. Drawing conclusions --6. Replication
question
1. Form a research question
answer
-Many questions come from daily observations/experiences. -Questions are best directed toward behavior which can be measured easily. -Ex: what do cats and dogs do when placed together? -Questions can come from folklore, common knowledge, and psychological theory.
question
2. Form a hypothesis
answer
-This is an educated guess trying to answer the research question. -Because this is an educated guess, the question must be tested.
question
3. Test the hypothesis
answer
-Psychological knowledge rests on CAREFULLY examined human experience. -A variety of methods are used to test a hypothesis. Decide what info is needed to test hypothesis, -Gather info -Examine info -Is info sufficient to test the hypothesis?
question
4.Analyze the results
answer
-This asks what the findings mean. -Psychologists may spend weeks, months, even years gathering info and testing. -Psychologists look for patterns and relationships in the data then must decide if the data supports their hypothesis.
question
5. Draw conclusions
answer
-Draw conclusions based on analysis of the research. -Used to help with validation of the original question. -If the conclusion does not support the hypothesis then question needs to be revised. -An open mind is ESSENTIAL.
question
Replication
answer
-The study MUST be repeated and the results must be the same. -This is to rule out random occurrence. -If results are different then results from the 1st study are questioned. -Repeating the study may involve using different participants, slightly varied circumstances.
question
New questions
answer
-New questions often develop due to the study. Questions not thought of before. -When new questions occur, then the process begins all over.
question
Theory
answer
-A theory is an explanation that integrates principles and organizes and predicts behavior or events. -Ex: low self esteem contributes to depression
question
Hypothesis
answer
A testable prediction, often prompted by a theory.
question
Research observations
answer
Research would require us to administer tests of self esteem and depression. Individual who score low on a self esteem test and high on a depression test would confirm our hypothesis.
question
Case study
answer
-A technique in which 1 person is studied IN DEPTH to reveal underlying behavioral principles. -Case studies examines a phenomenon intensively in a specific individual, group, or situation. -Used when the phenomenon under investigation is new or rare.
question
Case study method
answer
-You may need to interview the client, people who know them to discover their background. -Freud's psychodynamic theory used a lot of case study. -Caution must be used. It CANNOT replicate people's memories and are filled with memory gaps.
question
Survey
answer
-A technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes, opinions, or behaviors of people usually done by questioning a representation, random sample of people.
question
The survey method
answer
-Gathering info by asking people directly. -People are asked to respond to a series of questions. -May be written questionnaires. -May interview orally-telephone, in person. -May not be accurate, people may lie!
question
Survey: wording effects
answer
Wording can change the results of a survey
question
Survey: random sampling
answer
-If each member of a population has an equal chance of inclusion into a sample, it is called a random sample (unbiased). If the survey sample is biased, its results are not valid.
question
Naturalistic observation
answer
Observing and recording the behavior of animals in the wild and recording self-seating patterns in a multiracial school lunch room constitute naturalistic observation.
question
Naturalistic observation method
answer
-Often used with children -You observe and record the subject as they interact with peers or other (adults). -Often done in the field - home, school, office, restaurant, and only place they spend time.
question
The laboratory-observation method
answer
-A laboratory is any place that allows for observation. Many are informal. -Can be used to control the environment. -Skinner used laboratory to observe his rats.
question
Correlation
answer
When 1 trait or behavior accompanies another.
question
Scatterplot
answer
-A graph comprises of points that are generated by values of 2 variables. The slope of the points depicts the direction, while the amount of scatter depicts the strength of the relationship.
question
Correlation and causation
answer
Correlation does not mean causation!
question
Illusory correlation
answer
The perception of a relationship where no relationship actually exists. Parents conceive children after adoption.
question
Experimentation
answer
Like other sciences, experimentation is the backbone of psychological research
question
DV
answer
-A factor that may change in response to an independent variable. In psychology, it is usually a behavior or mental process. -Many factors influence our behavior. Experiments manipulate factors that interest us, while other factors are kept under control.
question
IV
answer
-A factor manipulated by the experimenter. The effect of the IV is the FOCUS of the study. -Effect generated by the manipulated factors isolate cause and effect relationships.
question
Experimental Method
answer
Random sampling and random assignment
question
Random sampling
answer
Ensures that everyone in the population has an equal chance at being in the experiment
question
Random assignment
answer
Spreads the uncontrolled subject variables evenly between groups.
question
Experiment research
answer
Experimental group and control group
question
Experimental group
answer
The group that receives the treatment (group that watches violent TV)
question
Control group
answer
The group that receives no treatment, or some other treatment (group that watches play TV or no TV)
question
Single-blind studies
answer
-Participants DO NOT know if they are in the experimental group or the control group. -Means you DO NOT know if the meds given are real or sugar pills.
question
Double-blind studies
answer
-In evaluating drug therapies, patients and experimenters's assistants should remain unaware of which patients had the real treatment and which patients had the placebo treatment. -Required by the Food and Drug Administration -You are assigned at random. -Idea to keep bias out.
question
Placebo effect
answer
A substance or treatment that has no effect except the clients belief.
question
Statistical reasoning
answer
Analyze and interpret data allowing us to see what the unaided eye missed.
question
Statistical reasoning in everyday life!
answer
-Doubt big, round, undocumented numbers as they can be misleading and before long, become public misinfo.
question
Describing data
answer
-A meaningful description of data is important in research. Misrepresenting may lead to incorrect conclusions.
question
Measures of central tendency
answer
-Mode, mean, and median
question
Measure of variation
answer
-Range and standard deviation
question
Standard deviation
answer
-A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean
question
Normal curve
answer
A symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes that distribution of many types of data (normal distribution). Most scores fall near the mean.
question
Making inferences
answer
A statistical statement of how frequently an obtained result occurred by experimental manipulation or by chance.
question
When is an observed difference reliable?
answer
1. Representative samples are better than biased samples. 2. Less variable observations are more reliable than more variable ones. 3. More cases are better than fewer cases.
question
When is a difference significant?
answer
-When sample averages are reliable and the difference between them is relatively large, we say the difference has statistical significance. It is probably not due chance variation.
question
Ethnics in research
answer
-Research with people -Confidentiality -Informed consent -Deception and debriefing -Animal research -Ethnics using data
question
Ethical issues
answer
-Ethics are standards for proper and responsible behavior for psychologists to follow. -Idea id to lessen people's suffering. -APA provides guidelines on making a study ethical.
question
Confidentiality
answer
-Records of clients and participants are confidential = DO NOT share, do not gossip. -Have respect for privacy
question
Informed consent
answer
Means that participants have been explained what is going on and they agree, or consent, to participate.
question
Deception
answer
Sometimes we have to use deceptions such as a blind study where participants are not aware of the treatment.
question
Research with animals
answer
-Controversial -Psychologists use animals ONLY when where there is no alternative and the benefits outweigh the harm. -Some studies may be harmful -PETA
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A paragraph is a related group of sentences that develops one main idea. Each paragraph in the body of the essay should contain:
  • a topic sentence that states the main or controlling idea
  • supporting sentences to explain and develop the point you’re making
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  • analysis of the implication/significance/impact of the evidence finished off with a critical conclusion you have drawn from the evidence.