Chapter 1: Thinking Critically With Psychological Science – Flashcards
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Intuition & common sense
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-Many people believe that intuition and common sense are enough to bring forth answers regarding human nature. -Intuition and common sense may aid queries, but they are not free of error.
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Limits of Intuition
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Personal interviews may rely too much on their "gut feelings" when meeting with job applicants.
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Hindsight bias
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-The "I-knew-it-all-along" phenomenon. -After learning an outcome of an event, many people believe they could have predicted that very outcome. We only know that dot.com stocks would plummet after they actually DID plummet.
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Overconfidence
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-Sometimes we think we know more than we ACTUALLY know. -People said it would take about 10 sec to solve an anagram, yet on average they took about 3 mins.
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The Scientific Attitude
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Composed of curiosity (passion for exploration), skepticism (doubting and questioning), and humility (ability to accept responsibility when wrong).
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Critical thinking
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-Does not accept arguments and conclusions blindly. -It examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.
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How psychologists ask and answer questions.
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-Psychologists, like all scientists, use the "scientific method" to construct theories (ideas) that organize, summarize and simplify observations.
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The Scientific Method
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-Identify the problem -Design the study -Perform the study -Interpret the results
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Conducting Research
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-5 steps for conducting research 1. Form a research question 2. Form a hypothesis 3. Test the hypothesis 4. Analyze the results 5. Drawing conclusions --6. Replication
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1. Form a research question
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-Many questions come from daily observations/experiences. -Questions are best directed toward behavior which can be measured easily. -Ex: what do cats and dogs do when placed together? -Questions can come from folklore, common knowledge, and psychological theory.
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2. Form a hypothesis
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-This is an educated guess trying to answer the research question. -Because this is an educated guess, the question must be tested.
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3. Test the hypothesis
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-Psychological knowledge rests on CAREFULLY examined human experience. -A variety of methods are used to test a hypothesis. Decide what info is needed to test hypothesis, -Gather info -Examine info -Is info sufficient to test the hypothesis?
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4.Analyze the results
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-This asks what the findings mean. -Psychologists may spend weeks, months, even years gathering info and testing. -Psychologists look for patterns and relationships in the data then must decide if the data supports their hypothesis.
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5. Draw conclusions
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-Draw conclusions based on analysis of the research. -Used to help with validation of the original question. -If the conclusion does not support the hypothesis then question needs to be revised. -An open mind is ESSENTIAL.
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Replication
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-The study MUST be repeated and the results must be the same. -This is to rule out random occurrence. -If results are different then results from the 1st study are questioned. -Repeating the study may involve using different participants, slightly varied circumstances.
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New questions
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-New questions often develop due to the study. Questions not thought of before. -When new questions occur, then the process begins all over.
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Theory
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-A theory is an explanation that integrates principles and organizes and predicts behavior or events. -Ex: low self esteem contributes to depression
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Hypothesis
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A testable prediction, often prompted by a theory.
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Research observations
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Research would require us to administer tests of self esteem and depression. Individual who score low on a self esteem test and high on a depression test would confirm our hypothesis.
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Case study
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-A technique in which 1 person is studied IN DEPTH to reveal underlying behavioral principles. -Case studies examines a phenomenon intensively in a specific individual, group, or situation. -Used when the phenomenon under investigation is new or rare.
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Case study method
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-You may need to interview the client, people who know them to discover their background. -Freud's psychodynamic theory used a lot of case study. -Caution must be used. It CANNOT replicate people's memories and are filled with memory gaps.
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Survey
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-A technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes, opinions, or behaviors of people usually done by questioning a representation, random sample of people.
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The survey method
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-Gathering info by asking people directly. -People are asked to respond to a series of questions. -May be written questionnaires. -May interview orally-telephone, in person. -May not be accurate, people may lie!
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Survey: wording effects
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Wording can change the results of a survey
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Survey: random sampling
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-If each member of a population has an equal chance of inclusion into a sample, it is called a random sample (unbiased). If the survey sample is biased, its results are not valid.
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Naturalistic observation
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Observing and recording the behavior of animals in the wild and recording self-seating patterns in a multiracial school lunch room constitute naturalistic observation.
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Naturalistic observation method
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-Often used with children -You observe and record the subject as they interact with peers or other (adults). -Often done in the field - home, school, office, restaurant, and only place they spend time.
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The laboratory-observation method
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-A laboratory is any place that allows for observation. Many are informal. -Can be used to control the environment. -Skinner used laboratory to observe his rats.
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Correlation
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When 1 trait or behavior accompanies another.
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Scatterplot
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-A graph comprises of points that are generated by values of 2 variables. The slope of the points depicts the direction, while the amount of scatter depicts the strength of the relationship.
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Correlation and causation
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Correlation does not mean causation!
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Illusory correlation
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The perception of a relationship where no relationship actually exists. Parents conceive children after adoption.
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Experimentation
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Like other sciences, experimentation is the backbone of psychological research
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DV
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-A factor that may change in response to an independent variable. In psychology, it is usually a behavior or mental process. -Many factors influence our behavior. Experiments manipulate factors that interest us, while other factors are kept under control.
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IV
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-A factor manipulated by the experimenter. The effect of the IV is the FOCUS of the study. -Effect generated by the manipulated factors isolate cause and effect relationships.
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Experimental Method
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Random sampling and random assignment
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Random sampling
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Ensures that everyone in the population has an equal chance at being in the experiment
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Random assignment
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Spreads the uncontrolled subject variables evenly between groups.
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Experiment research
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Experimental group and control group
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Experimental group
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The group that receives the treatment (group that watches violent TV)
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Control group
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The group that receives no treatment, or some other treatment (group that watches play TV or no TV)
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Single-blind studies
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-Participants DO NOT know if they are in the experimental group or the control group. -Means you DO NOT know if the meds given are real or sugar pills.
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Double-blind studies
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-In evaluating drug therapies, patients and experimenters's assistants should remain unaware of which patients had the real treatment and which patients had the placebo treatment. -Required by the Food and Drug Administration -You are assigned at random. -Idea to keep bias out.
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Placebo effect
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A substance or treatment that has no effect except the clients belief.
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Statistical reasoning
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Analyze and interpret data allowing us to see what the unaided eye missed.
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Statistical reasoning in everyday life!
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-Doubt big, round, undocumented numbers as they can be misleading and before long, become public misinfo.
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Describing data
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-A meaningful description of data is important in research. Misrepresenting may lead to incorrect conclusions.
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Measures of central tendency
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-Mode, mean, and median
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Measure of variation
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-Range and standard deviation
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Standard deviation
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-A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean
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Normal curve
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A symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes that distribution of many types of data (normal distribution). Most scores fall near the mean.
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Making inferences
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A statistical statement of how frequently an obtained result occurred by experimental manipulation or by chance.
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When is an observed difference reliable?
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1. Representative samples are better than biased samples. 2. Less variable observations are more reliable than more variable ones. 3. More cases are better than fewer cases.
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When is a difference significant?
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-When sample averages are reliable and the difference between them is relatively large, we say the difference has statistical significance. It is probably not due chance variation.
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Ethnics in research
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-Research with people -Confidentiality -Informed consent -Deception and debriefing -Animal research -Ethnics using data
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Ethical issues
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-Ethics are standards for proper and responsible behavior for psychologists to follow. -Idea id to lessen people's suffering. -APA provides guidelines on making a study ethical.
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Confidentiality
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-Records of clients and participants are confidential = DO NOT share, do not gossip. -Have respect for privacy
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Informed consent
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Means that participants have been explained what is going on and they agree, or consent, to participate.
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Deception
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Sometimes we have to use deceptions such as a blind study where participants are not aware of the treatment.
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Research with animals
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-Controversial -Psychologists use animals ONLY when where there is no alternative and the benefits outweigh the harm. -Some studies may be harmful -PETA
