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Anatomy

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the study of the structure of the body

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Physiology

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the study of the function of the body

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Chemical level

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represents the atoms and molecules that make up cells (Consists of Atomic level and molecular level)

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Cellular level

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represents the basic unit of all living things

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Tissue level

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a group of cells with similar or common function

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Organ level

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a group of tissues with similar or common function

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Organ system level

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a group of organs with similar or common function

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Organismic level

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the entire body consisting of the various organ systems.

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Integumentary System

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controls body temperature & protects body from environmental hazards

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Skeletal System

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supports body, protects soft body parts, stores minerals, forms blood cells

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Muscular System

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movement, support and produces heat

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Nervous System

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controls immediate responses to stimuli

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Endocrine System

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controls long-term responses in body

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Cardiovascular System

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internal transport of nutrients, wastes, oxygen, carbon dioxide and cells

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Lymphatic & Immune Systems

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defense, immunity and returns lost fluids to cardiovascular system

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Respiratory System

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exchange of air and delivery of blood gases to/from tissues

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Digestive System

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ingestion, breakdown and absorption of food & elimination of indigestible wastes

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Urinary System

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filtration of blood to maintain proper water and salt balance and to eliminate waste products

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Reproductive System

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produces sex cells and hormones related to reproduction

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homeostasis

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condition in which body's internal environment remains within certain narrow physiological limits

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homeostatic regulation

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adjustment of physiological system to maintain homeostasis

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receptor

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monitors change in controlled condition (stimulus) and sends input to control center

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control (integration) center

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receives input from receptor & determines appropriate response

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effector

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cell or organ that receives information (output) from control center and produces a response (effect)

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interactions of a feedback system

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stimulus -> receptor -> input (afferent pathway) -> control center -> output (efferent pathway) -> response

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positive feedback

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the response by the effector to the initial change is to further exaggerate the change. Example in labor contractions, the contraction of the uterus forces the baby towards the birth canal, which

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places pressure on the cervix; the pressure of the baby against the cervix causes uterine contraction, etc.

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...

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Negative feedback

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the response by the effector to the initial change is to counter or reduce that change, thus bringing the system back to its "normal" state. Example When blood sugar level rises, the pancreas secretes

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insulin which causes the cells of the body to take in glucose, thus removing glucose from the blood and lowering blood sugar level.

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...

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Anatomical position

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patient is erect, feet apart and palms facing anteriorly Cephalic = head

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Cranial

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upper portion of head surrounding brain

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Facial

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face

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cervical

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neck

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thoracic

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chest

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axillary

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armpit

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acromial

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point of shoulder

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deltoid

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fleshy portion of shoulder

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brachial

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upper arm

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antebrachial

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forearm

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antecubital

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front of elbow

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carpal

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wrist

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manual

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hand

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digital (phalangeal)

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fingers or toes

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abdominal

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region of trunk between diaphragm and pelvis

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dorsal

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back

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lumbar

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lower back

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olecranol

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back of elbow

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pelvic

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pelvis

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pubic

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anterior pelvis

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inguinal

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junction of trunk and thighs (groin)

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gluteal

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buttocks

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femoral

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thigh

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patellar

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front of knee

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popliteal

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back of knee

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crural

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anterior of lower leg (shin)

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sural

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posterior of lower leg (calf)

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tarsal

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ankle

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pedal

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foot

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plantar

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bottom of foot

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superior (

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cephalic = cranial) = towards the head

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inferior (

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caudal) = away from the head

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anterior (ventral)

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towards the front

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posterior (dorsal)

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towards the back

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medial

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towards the midline

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lateral

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away from the midline

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proximal

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towards the point of attachment (limbs)

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distal

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away from the point of attachment (limbs)

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superficial

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towards the surface (i.e., skin)

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deep

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away from the surface

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Sagittal

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separates the body into right and left parts

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Midsaggital

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median = separates the body into equal right and left parts

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Parasaggital

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separates the body into unequal right and left parts

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Frontal

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coronal = separates the body into anterior and posterior parts

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Transverse

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horizontal - cross-sectional -separates the body into superior and inferior parts

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.

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...

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dorsal body

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The two major cavities of the body are the dorsal body cavity and the ventral body cavity.

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ventral body

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The organs in the ventral body cavity are surrounded by serous membranes which allow for organ movement. There are no serous membranes in he dorsal body cavity.

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The dorsal body cavity

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surrounds the brain and spinal cord.

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It is separated into two subdivisions

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the cranial cavity surrounds the brain and the spinal cavity surrounds the spinal cord.

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The ventral body cavity

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includes the thoracic cavity and the abdominopelvic cavity.

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The thoracic cavity

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is the cavity superior to the diaphragm and the abdominopelvic cavity is inferior to the diaphragm.

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The thoracic cavity is further subdivided into

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two pleural cavities, which contain the lungs, one pericardial cavity, which contains the

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heart, and the mediastinum, which is the central region of the thoracic cavity containing the esophagus and trachea.

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...

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The abdominopelvic cavity

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is separated into two regions, which are not truly separated from one another in the

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body.

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...

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These are the abdominal cavity,

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which contains primarily the digestive organs and the pelvic cavity, which contains primarily the reproductive and urinary organs.

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Serous membranes (also called serosae)

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are found within the ventral body cavity. They consist of two layers of membrane with fluid =(called serous fluid) in between the two layers.

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The inner layer

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which is closest to the organ, is

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called the visceral layer.

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...

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The outer layer

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which is closest to the body wall, is called the parietal layer.

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Pleura

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serous membranes surrounding lungs

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parietal pleura

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outer serous membrane surrounding lungs

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visceral pleura

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inner serous membrane surrounding lungs

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Pericardium

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serous membranes surrounding heart

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parietal percardium

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outer serous membrane surrounding heart

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visceral pericardium

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inner serous membrane surrounding heart

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Peritoneum

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serous membranes lining organs in the abdominopelvic cavity (surrounding digestive, reproductive and

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urinary organs)

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...

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parietal peritoneum

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outer serous membrane surrounding organs in the abdominopelvic region

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visceral peritoneum

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inner serous membrane surrounding organs in the abdominopelvic region

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Imagine drawing a cross in the abdominopelvic region with the lines intersecting at the umbilicus. These represent the quadrants. Remember when naming the quadrants and regions that right and left refer to the patient's right and left. The quadrants are as follows

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...

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Right Upper Quadrant Left Upper Quadrant

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...

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Right Lower Quadrant Left Lower Quadrant

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...

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Now imagine drawing a "tic tac toe" in the abdominopelvic region with the umbilicus in the center of the middle square. The nine regions are as follows

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...

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Right Hypochondriac Epigastric Left Hypochondriac

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...

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Right Lumbar Umbilical Left Lumbar

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...

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Right Iliac Hypogastric Left Iliac

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...

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oral

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cavity of mouth

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digestive

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cavity inside the digestive tract

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nasal

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cavity inside nose

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orbital

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cavity around eyes

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middle ear

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cavity between eardrum and inner ear

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synovial

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cavity surrounding some types of joints

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Matter

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is anything that occupies space and has mass.

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The three states of matter are

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solid, liquid and gas.

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How do they differ from each other

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They differ from one another primarily in the distance between molecules and the motion of molecules.

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In gases

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molecules are far apart there is a lot of motion.

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Liquids

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have less movement of molecules and shorter distances between molecules than gases.

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Solids

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have less movement of molecules and shorter distances between molecules than liquids.

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Element

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building blocks of matter; each element is unique in its atomic structure and has its own unique properties

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Atom

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building blocks or basic units of elements

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Subatomic particle

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the particles that make up an atom; i.e., protons, neutrons and electrons

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Proton

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positively charged subatomic particle that resides in the nucleus of an atom

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neutron

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uncharged subatomic particle that resides in the nucleus of an atom

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electron

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negatively charged subatomic particle that resides in the energy levels (shells) of an atom

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Ionic bonds

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occur when one atoms gives electron(s) to another atom. When electrons are transferred, the atom that loses electrons becomes a cation and the atom that gains electrons becomes an anion. The two atoms are then attracted to one another due the attraction of opposite charges.

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Covalent bonds

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occur when two atoms share electrons. Because they share electrons, the two atoms are held together.

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Polar covalent bonds

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are bonds where electrons are shared unequally. As a result, one side becomes slightly positively charged and the other side becomes slightly negatively charged (and we call this polar).

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Nonpolar covalent bonds

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are bonds where electrons are shared equally; there is no separation of charge.

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Single covalent bonds

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two atoms share 1 pair of electrons

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Double covalent bonds

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two atoms share 2 pair of electrons

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Triple covalent bonds

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two atoms share 3 pair of electrons

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A hydrogen bond is

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a weak attraction between hydrogen of one molecule (or section of molecule) and the oxygen or nitrogen of one molecule (or section of molecule). Rather than holding atoms together within a molecule like covalent and ionic bonds do, hydrogen bonds typically occur between molecules or regions of a molecule. The attraction is due to the slight positive charge found on hydrogen that is in a polar covalent bond and the slight negative charge found on either oxygen or nitrogen that are also in a polar covalent bond.

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Reactants

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are present initially.

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Products

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are present after the reaction occurs

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Metabolism

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the sum of all chemical reactions in the cell (or body)

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Kinetic energy

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energy of particles in motion

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Potential energy

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stored energy (bond energy is potential)

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Exergonic reaction

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reaction that releases energy (goes from high energy reactants to low energy products and excess energy is released)

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Endergonic reaction

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reaction that requires energy (goes from low energy reactants to high energy products)

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Synthesis reaction

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building of large molecules from smaller units (usually requires energy); A + B or AB

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Decomposition reaction

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break down of large molecules into smaller units (usually releases energy); AB or A + B

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Exchange reaction

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exchange of atoms or between reactants (may either release or require energy);AB + CD or AC + BD

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Reduction-oxidation reactions

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involve the transfer of electrons from one molecule to another. This type of reaction is often classified as a special type of exchange reaction. Marieb also describes it as a type of decomposition reaction.

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Metabolism

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sum of all chemical reactions in the body (or cell).

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Catabolism

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metabolic activities that result in breaking down large molecules into smaller components

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Anabolism

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metabolic activities that result in build large molecules from smaller components .

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Organic compounds

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contain carbon and hydrogen;

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inorganic compounds

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do not.

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properties of water

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Water is polar which means that there is a partial positive charge near the hydrogens and a partial negative charge near the oxygen. The polarity of water makes it able to conduct an electrical current. It also makes it a good solvent because it can dissolve other polar molecules and ionic compounds (by separating the molecules when the charges (partial for polar and whole for ionic) on this molecule are attracted to the partial charges on the water molecule). Things that dissolve in water are called hydrophilic. Things that do not dissolve in water but are repelled by water are called hydrophobic.

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Water molecules are held together by

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hydrogen bonds. These hydrogen bonds give water its fluidity. The tendency of water molecules to stick to one another is called cohesion. Water molecules will also stick to other charged surfaces; this is called adhesion. As a result of cohesion, water has a high surface tension (the force required to break the surface). As a result of cohesion and adhesion, water exhibits capillary action (the tendency to rise up a tube and flow through a tube).

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Also due to hydrogen bonds,

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water functions to stabilize temperature because it resists temperature changes (has high specific heat). In order to change the temperature of any substance, the molecules must move faster. To make water molecules move faster, we first have to break hydrogen bonds, which requires energy. Using the same reasoning, water also does not change to the gaseous state easily (has high heat of vaporization). In addition, because of hydrogen bonds, when water freezes there is a lot of space between molecules. This makes water in its solid state less dense that water in its liquid state (ice floats). If ice did not float, life on earth would probably not exist (at least in areas subjected to freezing temperatures because after freezing at the interface with the air the ice would sink, then more water would freeze and sink, etc. Soon the entire body of water would be frozen solid.

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Acid

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substance that releases H+ in water

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Base

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substance that accepts H+ in water; OR substance that releases OH- in water

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Salt

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ionic compound that breaks down into anions and cations in water

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Neutralization

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the movement of pH towards neutral (occurs when an acid and base are combined).

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Buffer

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substance that resists changes in pH; composed of a weak acid and a weak base so that it can either release or accept H+ depending on conditions.

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The pH scale

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is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration in solution. The scale goes from 0 to 14. PH : -log[H+]. PH -7 is neutral and represents a H+ concentration of 10-7.

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As H+ concentration increases,

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the pH decreases. PH7 = basic.

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Each change in pH of one whole unit

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represents a 10-fold change in hydrogen ion concentration.

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Hydrolysis

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the breaking down of polymers (large molecules composed of repeating subunits) into monomers (the building blocks ) by adding water

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Dehydration synthesis

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the formation of polymers from monomers by removing water

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CARBOHYDRATES

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the monomers of carbohydrates are monosaccharides; the polymers are disaccharides and polysaccharides.

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polar compounds

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that dissolve well in water.

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Carbohydrates are

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essentially hydrated carbon compounds (CH2O).

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Carbohydrates have two major functions

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energy and structural support.

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Monosaccharides

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are generally burned to produce energy.

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Polysaccharides are

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either used to store energy (starch in plants, glycogen in animals) or for structural support.

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LIPIDS

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Lipids are a structurally diverse group of molecules that are lumped together on the basis of their inability to dissolve in water (they are nonpolar).

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The glycerides

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are composed of a glycerol (three-carbon) backbone with fatty acids attached.

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In a monoglyceride

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1 fatty acid is attached to glycerol;

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In a diglyceride

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2 fatty acids are attached to glycerol.

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In a triglyceride

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3 fatty acids are attached to glycerol.

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Triglycerides are

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also called neutral fats and their function is long-term energy storage, protection and insulation.

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Steroids

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are composed of 4 interlocking carbon rings. There are a lot of different steroids with different functions. The primary functions include acting as chemical messengers (hormones) and stabilizing cell membranes (cholesterol) and facilitating fat digestion (bile).

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Eicosanoids

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function as chemical messengers that coordinate local cellular activities

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Phospholipids and glycolipids

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are lipids that have phosphate-containing groups or sugars attached to them; they function as components of cell membranes

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PROTEINS

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Proteins are a functionally diverse group of molecules with very similar primary structures. They consist of amino acids bonded to one another by peptide bonds.

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The functions of proteins is variable, including

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catalysis (enzymes), transport (plasma membrane proteins, hemoglobin& lipoproteins), chemical messengers (some hormones and neurotransmitters), immunity and defense.

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NUCLEIC ACIDS

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are chains of nucleotides bonded to one another (i.e., monomers = nucleotides;

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polymers

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nucleic acids).

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Nucleic acids function

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in containing hereditary information, containing information about proteins and performing protein synthesis.

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The first Structural levels of organization

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the primary sequence is the linear sequence of amino acids in the chain.

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The secondary structural levels of organization sequence

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is the twisting or coiling of the linear chain, which results from hydrogen bonds that occur at regular intervals along the chain.

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The Third structural levels of organization

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tertiary sequence is the folding of the coiled chain and is a result of interactions between R groups, which means that it varies depending on the primary structure.

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fourth structural levels of organization

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the tertiary structure is the aggregation of two or more coiled chains. The 3-D shape of a protein influences its function. The tertiary sequence is critical in dictating the overall 3-dimensional shape. The surface of the molecule will contain regions for binding to other molecules; the shape of these regions is critical to proper functioning.

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The two structural classes of proteins are

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globular proteins and fibrous proteins. Globular proteins typically function in providing structural framework & mechanical support or movement.

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Globular proteins tend to serve a wider variety of functions, including

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catalysis (enzymes), molecular chaperones, transport, regulate pH, regulate metabolism and defense.

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Enzyme

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a molecule composed at least partially of protein which catalyzes a biochemical reaction

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Apoenzyme

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the protein portion of an enzyme that requires a cofactor (or coenzyme)

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Holoenzyme

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the apoenzyme + cofactor (or coenzyme)

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Cofactor

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a substance that may be required for the proper functioning of an enzyme, which is either a metal ion or a coenzyme

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Coenzyme

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a large organic molecule that may be required for the proper functioning of an enzyme

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RNA consists

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of a single strand of nucleotides. It functions in protein synthesis and the formation of ribosomes.

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DNA consists

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of two strands of nucleotides (at least in humans and most other organisms) that are twisted to form a helix. It functions in passing hereditary information from one generation to the next and in containing instructions for making all proteins within the cell.

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ADP

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(adenosine diphosphate)

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ATP

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(adenosine triphosphate).

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ATP

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is the energy currency of the cell. When excess energy is given off from a chemical energy, the energy is used to make ATP from ADP, which stores it for use elsewhere. When energy is needed to drive a chemical reaction ATP is broken down to ADP and the energy from that terminal bond is released.

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Monosaccharides are

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the monomers of carbohydrates; the most common is glucose. It is used as a direct energy source.

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Polysaccharides are

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carbohydrate polymers that are formed by dehydration synthesis that attaches many monosaccharides together.

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Polysaccharides are used

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to store energy (starch in plants, glycogen in animals) or for structural support (cellulose in plants and chitin in some animals).

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Fatty acids

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are monomers of triglycerides.

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Triglycerides

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are lipid polymers and are composed of a glycerol (three-carbon) backbone with fatty acids attached.

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BONUS:Triglycerides are also

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called neutral fats and their function is long-term energy storage, protection and insulation.

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Steroids are

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lipids composed of 4 interlocking carbon rings. There are a lot of different steroids with different functions.

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the primary functions of steriods

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include acting as chemical messengers (hormones) and stabilizing cell membranes (cholesterol) and facilitating fat digestion (bile).

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Amino acids

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are the building blocks (monomers) of proteins;

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Peptide bonds

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are the bonds that form between amino acids in a polypeptide chain.

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nucleotides

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are the monomers of nucleic acids.

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The plasma membrane

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is a double layer (bilayer) of phospholipid molecules with proteins and cholesterol imbedded in the membrane and sugar and proteins attached to the surfaces.

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The phospholipid bilayer is arranged

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with the phosphate heads pointing outward and the fatty acid tails pointing toward one another.

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The phospholipids

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form the basic backbone of the membrane and function to physically isolate the cell from its surroundings.

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The phospholipids do what

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also allow very small molecules to pass through the membrane. The cholesterol molecules that are interspersed between phospholipids function to stabilize the membrane and give it some rigidity. The proteins in the membrane serve a variety of functions.

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The sugars in the membrane

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are attached to other molecules and function in cell adhesion and recognition.

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Phospholipids

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physically isolate the cell from its surroundings and allow very small molecules to pass through the membrane.

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Glycolipids

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sugar attached to phospholipid; function in cell adhesion and recognition.

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Cholesterol

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stabilize the membrane and give it some rigidity.

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Integral proteins are

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embedded into the phospholipid bilayer and may either extend all the way or partially through the bilayer.

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Peripheral proteins

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are not embedded into the bilayer but rest on the inner and outer phospholipid surfaces.

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. Anchoring proteins

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serve as attachment points for the cytoskeleton to provide structural support and shape.

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Recognition proteins

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allow for cells to identify other cells in order to protect the body against invaders. Some membrane proteins function as enzymes to catalyze reactions that occur at the membrane surface.

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Receptor proteins are

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proteins that bind to particular molecules which then alters the activity of the cell. Carrier proteins and channel proteins both function in transport of materials across the membrane.

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Carrier proteins

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actually bind to molecules and carry them across the membrane.

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Channels

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are protein-lined paths that allow for materials to pass through the membrane.

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The membrane is composed of

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carbohydrates are the glycolipids and glycoproteins, which are sugars added to lipids and proteins, respectively. Together they make up the glycocalyx, which refers to the outer, sticky region of the plasma membrane. It is only on the side of the membrane facing the extracellular fluid.

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The glycocalyx functions

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in cell adhesion, recognition and immunity.

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Membranes of adjacent cells are

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usually interconnected by the adhesive properties of the glycocalyx. Often, wavy surface contours can "interlock" adjacent cells as well.

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There are 3 types of special junctions

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tight junctons, desmosomes and gap junctions.

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Tight junctions form

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fluid-tight seals between cells to prevent leaking. These are common among epithelial cells that line stomach, intestines and bladder.

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Desmosomes are

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anchoring junctions that fasten cells to one another or to the extracellular material. These are common in tissues subjected to friction & stretching (skin and heart muscle).

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Gap junctions are

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communicating junctions between adjacent cells that allow the movement of ions & small molecules to pass through pores from one cell to the next. These are present in heart and smooth muscle where ion flow synchronizes activity to generate coordinated contractions.

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Sometimes cells will interact directly with other cells, but often they are responding to extracellular chemicals found within body fluids (e.g. hormones & neurotransmitters). Cells also interact with surrounding chemicals to help guide them during development and repair. In both the direct and indirect interactions, the glycocalyx is involved. One group of molecules in the glycocalyx are cell adhesion molecules (CAMS) that function in embryonic development, wound repair and immunity. The glycocalyx also consists of membrane proteins that act as receptors. Some of the receptors respond to contact with other cells (contact signaling) while others respond to specific chemicals (

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ligands) that bind to them. Examples of ligands include neurotransmitters and hormones. Some receptors may have a direct influence on the membrane while others use a regulatory molecule called a G protein and internal second messengers to regulate cell activities.

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Passive transport processes require what

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do not require the expenditure of energy while active processes require the use of energy.

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Types of Passive processes

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include diffusion, osmosis, filtration and facilitated diffusion.

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Type of Active processes

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include active transport and vesicular transport.

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Concentration gradient

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a difference in the concentration between two areas.

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Simple Diffusion

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movement of solutes across a membrane from an area of high solute concentration to an area of low solute concentration without the use of membrane carriers or energy.

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Facilitated diffusion

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movement of solutes across a membrane from an area of high solute concentration to an area of low solute concentration using membrane carriers but without the use of energy.

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filtration

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the relatively unselective movement of solutes across a membrane from an area of high pressure to an area of low pressure without the use of membrane carriers or energy.

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Osmosis

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movement of water across a membrane from an area of high water concentration to an area of low water concentration without the use of membrane carriers or energy.

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Active transport

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movement of solutes across a membrane from an area of low concentration to high concentration using both energy and protein carriers.

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vesicular transport

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movement of substances across a membrane by forming a vesicle (membranous sac), which requires the use of energy and can go from high to low or low to high concentration.

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endocytosis

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movement of substances INTO the cell by forming a vesicle (membranous sac) and expending energy; this includes phagocytosis, bulk-phase endocytosis and receptor-mediated endocytosis

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exocytosis

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movement of substances OUT OF the cell by forming a vesicle (membranous sac) and expending energy

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phagocytosis

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movement of LARGE PARTICLES (FOOD, DEBRIS, BACTERIA ETC.) into the cell by forming a vesicle (membranous sac) and expending energy

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pinocytosis

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fluid-phase endocytosis = endocytosis of droplets of extracellular material (which includes fluid that contains dissolved molecules

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receptor-mediated endocytosis

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this is endocytosis that involves specific uptake of large molecules; the key difference here is the specificity (performed by the receptor).

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Hydrostatic pressure

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the pressure exerted by water on a membrane

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osmotic pressure

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pressure exerted to prevent the flow of water due to concentration gradient (this opposes the hydrostatic pressure)

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tonicity

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behavior of cells in solution

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isotonic

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an isotonic solution is a solution that has the SAME solute concentration as the cell

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hypotonic

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a hypotonic solution is a solution that has a LOWER solute concentration than the cell

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hypertonic

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a hypertonic solution is a solution that has a HIGHER solute concentration than the cell

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crenation

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the shriveling of a cell as a result of losing water when placed in a hypertonic solution

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lysis

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the bursting of a cell as a result of gaining water when placed in a hypotonic solution

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Cytosol

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cytosol is the "fluid" portion of the cytoplasm; it contains water and dissolved proteins, carbohydrates and lipids; it has the consistency of jello

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Organelles

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organelles are the functional units inside the cell; each has its own function to perform

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Inclusions

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inclusions are substances contained in the cell such as pigment molecules (melanin) and energy storage molecules (fats and glycogen)

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Nucleus

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controls all cell activities by containing instructions for protein synthesis; also contains hereditary material (DNA).

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Nucleoplasm

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the semi-solid, semi-liquid substance that resides inside the nucleus (analagous to the cytosol of the cell).

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nuclear envelope

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regulates flow of materials between nucleus and cytoplasm

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nucleoli

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nucleolus (singular)helps form ribosomes

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chromatin

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DNA + proteins makes DNA contains instructions for making proteins and are passed to new cells and offspring during cell division (heredity); chromatin is the term used when the individual chromosomes are not distinguishable.

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ribosomes

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protein synthesis

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free

answer

produce proteins to be used in the cytoplasm

question

membrane bound

answer

produce proteins to be used in the plasma membrane (or endomembrane) or to be exported from cell (secreted)

question

rough ER

answer

synthesis of proteins to be used in the plasma membrane or to be exported from cell (secreted)

question

smooth ER

answer

lipid metabolism

question

golgi apparatus

answer

transport, packaging and modification of proteins; produces secretory vesicles; produces lysosomes

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lysosomes

answer

intracellular (inside cell) digestion; rid cell of worn out organelles; cell death (suicide)

question

peroxisomes

answer

break down harmful free radicals (by-products of metabolism)

question

mitochondria

answer

produce energy (ATP); cellular respiration (break down of nutrients into carbon dioxide and water which liberates energy)

question

cytoskeleton

answer

provide structural support; maintain cell shape; faciliate movement of cell and organelles; movement of chromosomes during division

question

microvilli

answer

minute, finger-like projections of the plasma membrane (on the exposed surface); major function is to increase surface area of the membrane; usually found on absorptive surfaces

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cilia

answer

movement of materials across the cell

question

flagella

answer

movement of cell through medium (e.g., sperm)

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centrosome

answer

an anchor for microtubules that is located near the nucleus and acts as an organizing center for the microtubules. Centrioles are located within the centrosome.

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centrioles

answer

help form the anchor of the mitotic spindle which separates chromosomes during division..

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Inclusions

answer

inclusions are substances contained in the cell such as pigment molecules (melanin), stored nutrients (fats and glycogen) and various types of crystals.

question

The cell cycle

answer

is the time from the formation of a cell until that cell finishes dividing itself. It includes interphase and mitotic phase (mitosis).

question

In interphase

answer

the cell is performing all of its functions other than dividing.

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In mitosis

answer

the cell is dividing.

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interphase the

answer

cell undergoes all of its normal daily metabolism (protein synthesis, digestion, cellular respiration, etc.).

question

During S (

answer

synthesis) the cell makes a copy of each of its chromosomes DNA replication).

question

During G2

answer

the cell produces enzymes and other materials needed for mitosis.

question

In DNA replication

answer

, each chromosome unwinds and the two strands unzip from one another. A new strand is build using each of the two unzipped strands as templates. Now each chromosome has an exact duplicate (called sister chromatid) and each chromatid consists of a new strand attached to an old strand.

question

Mitosis is

answer

the division of the nuclear material and cytokinesis is the division of cytoplasmic material (which coincides with the last stage of mitosis).

question

The stages of mitosis are

answer

prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase.

question

In prophase

answer

the nuclear membrane breaks down, the chromosomes condense and the mitotic spindle forms. In metaphase the chromosomes line up at the equator of the cell and are attached to the spindle by their centromeres.

question

In anaphase

answer

the sister chromatids (exact copies of one another) are separated from one another by the shortening of the proteins in the mitotic spindle. One set of chromatids is pulled to one side of the cell and the other set is pulled to the other side of the cell.

question

In telophase

answer

the chromatids have arrived at the two opposite poles of the cell, the nuclear membrane begins to reform and the chromosomes begin to decondense (lengthen out again).

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Cytokinesis

answer

is the division of the cytoplasm of the cell and it occurs during telophase.

question

Transcription occurs

answer

in the nucleus and translation occurs in the cytoplasm (at the ribosomes)

question

DNA

answer

contains the information on how to make all of the proteins that the cell synthesizes.

question

mRNA

answer

messenger RNA is a "transcript" of the section of DNA that describes how to make a particular protein

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tRNA

answer

transfer RNA the RNA that is hooked to an amino acid that brings the amino acids and attaches them to the growing protein

question

rRNA

answer

ribosomal RNA the RNA that forms part of the ribosome

question

In transcription

answer

a section of DNA containing the instructions for a particular proteins is exposed and a mRNA is built by matching the bases to the DNA (mRNA is made from DNA)

question

Genetic code

answer

the way that amino acid sequences of a protein are encyrpted or encoded in the nucleotide base sequences of DNA.

question

3 bases of DNA

answer

1 word in the genetic language and represents an amino acid

question

Codon

answer

the three nucleotide base sequence of mRNA corresponding to a particular amino acid

question

Anticodon

answer

the three nucleotide base sequence of tRNA that will be matched to the codon of the mRNA

question

Translation is

answer

the formation of a polypeptide chain (protein) from a mRNA molecule.

question

The mRNA

answer

connects to a ribosome and is read three nucleotides at a time (one word or codon).

question

tRNA

answer

brings in the matching anticodon and the amino acid that is attached. This amino acid is attached to the growing protein by a peptide bond and then the next codon is read. This continues until a STOP word is reached and translation ends.

question

The 3 types of extracellular materials are

answer

body fluids, cellular secretions and extracellular matrix.

question

Body fluids are important

answer

in transporting and dissolving substances (e.g., interstitial fluid, blood, cerebrospinal fluid).

question

Cellular secretions include

answer

substances released by cells for digestion (intestinal and gastric fluids) and lubrication (saliva, mucus and serous fluid).

question

Extracellular matrix

answer

is a jelly-like substance outside of cells composed of proteins and polysaccharides. It is secreted by cells and creates a mesh that surrounds cells.

question

Differentiation

answer

a developmental process by which cells become more and more specialized for a particular function.

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Apoptosis

answer

programmed cell death.

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Hyperplasia

answer

accelerated growth

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Tissue

answer

collection of specialized cells and cell products that perform a relatively limited number of functions

question

Histology

answer

study of tissues

question

EPITHELIAL

answer

covers exposed body surfaces lines internal passageways, hollow organs, body cavities and ducts forms glands

question

CONNECTIVE

answer

Tendons, ligaments, under epithelia, blood, bone, cartilage fills internal spaces structural support & protection for other tissues tranport of materials binds organs together stores energy reserves as fat

question

MUSCLE

answer

In muscles movement & generation of force generates heat

question

NERVOUS

answer

brain, spinal cord, nerves and sensory receptors carries information from one part of body to another via electrical impulses

question

List and describe the two major types of epithelial tissue

answer

covering and lining epithelium forms superficial layer of skin and some internal organs forms inner lining of blood vessels, ducts, body cavities forms interiors of respiratory, digestive, urinary and repro systems glandular epithelium constitutes secreting portion of glands

question

The six major functions of epithelial tissue include

answer

absorption, protection, excretion, filtration, secretion and sensory reception.

question

Epithelial tissue characteristics

answer

is highly cellular, which means it is composed primarily of closely-packed cells; very little space and EC material. It often has specialized cell junctions where cells bound closely together by one or more types of intercellular connections (i.e., tight junctions, gap junctions and desmosomes). It exhibits polarity such that it has apical and basal surfaces that differ from one another. Cellular organelles are often unevenly distributed between apical and basal surfaces. Epithelial tissue attaches to underlying connective tissue by a basement membrane. Epithelial tissue is avascular and must receive nutrients from blood vessels located in adjacent connective tissue by diffusion. It has high regeneration capacity since epithelium must continually repair & replace itself. It is innervated (has nerves) and often has specializations such microvilli (outward foldings of membrane to increase surface area) and cilia (hairlike extensions of membrane for movement of materials across surface).

question

tight junctions form fluid

answer

tight seals between cells common among epithelial cells that line stomach, intestines and bladder prevent fluid in cavity from leaking into body

question

anchoring junctions (desmosomes)

answer

fasten cells to one another or to EC materialcommon in tissues subjected to friction & stretching outer layer of skin, muscle tissue of heart, neck of uterus, epithelial lining of GI tract

question

surface)

answer

exposed to body exterior or cavity or lining of organ

question

basal surface

answer

attached surface (attached to basement membrane)

question

basement membrane

answer

consists of thin extracellular layer that attaches epithelium to underlying connective tissue.

question

basal lamina

answer

noncellular, adhesive that provides barrier that restricts movement of proteins and other large molecules from underlying connective tissue into epithelium; contains glycoproteins and protein filaments which are secreted by epithelium

question

reticular lamina

answer

contain reticular fibers & bundles of protein fibers which provide strength; it is secreted by CT

question

Epithelia are classified

answer

based on numbers of layers into simple and stratified epithelium.

question

Simple epithelium

answer

consists of a single layer of cells and primarily functions in diffusion, osmosis, filtration, secretion & absorption.

question

Stratified epithelium

answer

consists of 2 or more layers and often functions in protection in areas with lots of wear and tear

question

Epithelia are classified

answer

based on cell shape ( as viewed in cross-section).

question

Squamous epithelium

answer

has cells that are thin & flat and generally allow rapid movement of substances through them.

question

Cuboidal epithelia

answer

are cube-shaped (approximately equal height and width) and generally function in secretion & absorption.

question

Columnar epithelia

answer

are column-shaped (taller than they are wide).

question

simple squamous

answer

single layer of flat cells that are found in areas subjected to little wear and tear, which function in absorption &/or secretion.

question

simple squamous

answer

are found lining heart, blood vessels & lymph vessels (= endothelium), in the epithelial layer of serous membranes (= mesothelium) and lining the alveoli (air sacs) of lungs

question

stratified squamous

answer

Many lauers; superficial cells flat; deep cells cuboidal to columnar. The deepest cells divide and shift to surface; as cells move toward surface they get farther from blood supply (underlying connective tissue); cells get dehydrated, shrunken and harder; at surface they lose junctions and are sloughed off & replaced.

question

stratified squamous

answer

Primarily functions in protection and is found in the superficial layer of skin (epidermis) and lining wet surfaces (mouth, esophagus, tongue & part of epiglottis & vagina)

question

simple cuboidal

answer

A single layer of cube-shaped cells that function in secretion & absorption and are located lining glands & ducts.

question

transitional

answer

Transitional is composed of many layers but the appearance of individual cells changes due to stretching; Typically the superficial layer is not as flat as in stratified squamous.

question

transitional

answer

is found in the urinary bladder and ureters.

question

simple columnar

answer

...

question

Single layer of column-shaped cells.

answer

Contains goblet cells & microvilli & cilia in some locations

question

(microvilli

answer

cytoplasmic projections that increase membrane surface area). Functions to propel fluids or particles along passageway and in secretion and absorption. It lines the stomach, intestine gallbladder and uterine tubes.

question

pseudostratified ciliated columnar

answer

Single layer of column-shaped cells with cilia.The nuclei are at varying depths and all cells are attached to basement membrane in single layer but not all reach apical surface.

question

Cells that reach surface does what

answer

either secrete mucus or bear cilia. It functions in protection, secretion and movement of mucus by cilia and is located in the trachea & bronchi

question

The function of glandular epithelium

answer

is secretion which is accomplished by glandular cells that often lie in clusters deep to covering and lining epithelium. The gland may consist of one cell or group of specialized epithelial cells

question

Endocrine glands are ductless glands. Secretions enter EC fluid and then diffuse directly into bloodstream.

answer

...

question

(glandular epitheluim)Secretions are called hormones

answer

Exocrine contain ducts. Secretions flow onto surface of covering & lining epithelium via tubelike ducts. Secretions include= mucus, perspiration, skin oil, ear wax, milk and digestive enzymes (sweat glands and salivary glands)

question

In merocrine glands

answer

the secretion is released from secretory vesicle via exocytosis.

question

In an apocrine gland

answer

, cells lose some cytoplasm as well as secretory product; apical portion of cytoplasm packed with vesicles and is shed.

question

In a holocrine gland

answer

, the entire cell packed with secretory product and cell bursts open.

question

Connective tissue characterists are

answer

is widely distributed throughout body but not exposed to exterior. It is a binding and connecting type of tissue rather than a lining like epithelial. It has highly variable structure and function.

question

Connective tissue consists

answer

of sparsely distributed cells with lots of extracellular matrix. The matrix is composed of ground substance and protein fibers. CT is very variable in its degree of innervation and vascularization.

question

Connective tissue is made up

answer

of cells and extracellular matrix.

question

The extracellular matrix

answer

is all of the material outside the cells and consists of ground substance and protein fibers.

question

The ground substance

answer

is the watery (or gel-like or solid) background fluid in which cells and fibers are immersed or embedded. It fill spaces between cells & surrounds fibers.

question

Ground substance contains

answer

interstitial fluid, proteoglycans and adhesion proteins. The ground substance and fibers are secreted by the cells.

question

The three types of fibers in connective tissue are

answer

collagen fibers, reticular fibers and elastic fibers.

question

Collagen fibers

answer

are long, straight, unbranched and are the most common type of fiber.

question

Collagen fibers

answer

consist of a bundle of protein subunits wound together like rope. They are flexible but very strong when pulled from the end.

question

Reticular fibers

answer

have same protein subunits as collagen fibers but arranged differently so that the fibers are thinner and form branching network. They provide support and strength; resist forces in many directions.

question

Reticular fibers are

answer

found forming the stroma (supporting framework) of many soft organs (spleen, lymph nodes) and forming the basement membrane that attaches epithelium to connective tissue.

question

Elastic fibers

answer

are composed of the protein elastin and are smaller in diameter than collagen fibers. They can stretch and return to original length and thus provide elasticity.

question

The permanent cell population consists of

answer

fibroblasts, adipocytes, chondroblasts, osteoblasts and hematopoietic stem cells.

question

Fibroblasts

answer

are the most abundant of the permanent cells and they are the only cells that are always present in CT proper.

question

Fibroblasts does what?

answer

secrete the material that makes up viscous ground substance (hyaluronan (polysaccharide) + proteins = proteoglycan) and they secrete protein subunits that make up EC fibers.

question

Fibroblasts

answer

are the immature cells (when they mature they are called fibrocytes).

question

Adipocytes

answer

have large lipid droplets which squeeze the organelles to the periphery of the cell. The number of adipocytes varies from one type of CT to another and between individuals.

question

Chondroblasts

answer

are immature cartilage cells (called chondrocytes when mature).

question

Osteoblasts

answer

are immature bone cells (called osteocytes when mature).

question

hematopoietic stem cells

answer

are immature blood cells (have a variety of names when mature).

question

The accessory cell population consists

answer

of white blood cells, plasma cells, macrophages, mast cells and microphages. Macrophages, white blood cells, plasma cells and microphages function in defense. Mast cells store and secrete histamine (inflammatory response).

question

Well, maybe this should say 5 major classes.

answer

embryonic connective tissue (mesenchyme),Connective tissue proper Cartilage, Bone ,Blood

question

The two classes of connective tissue proper are

answer

loose CT and dense CT.

question

Loose connective tissue consists of three subclasses

answer

areolar, adipose and reticular CT.

question

Dense connective tissue

answer

most of the volume of tissue is occupied by fibers and collagen fibers predominate.

question

Dense CT consists of two sublcasses

answer

dense regular CT and dense irregular CT.

question

Mesenchyme

answer

is embryonic connective tissue that gives rise to all other connective tissues.

question

Mucous CT

answer

is a temporary tissue derived from mesenchyme that is similar to it. The best example is Wharton's jelly, which is supports the umbilical cord of the fetus.

question

Loose connective tissue consists of three subclasses

answer

areolar, adipose and reticular CT.

question

Areolar tissue

answer

may contain all the cells and fibers described for connective tissue proper. It has an open framework made up mostly of ground substance, which has a syrupy consistency.

question

Areolar CT functions

answer

fills spaces between organs, cushions and supports epithelia, surrounds and supports blood vessels and nerves, stores lipids and provides route for diffusion (nutrients, drugs, gases, cells).

question

Areolar CT located

answer

in the subcutaneous layer of skin, in the papillary (superficial) region of dermis, in mucous membranes, around blood vessels and nerves and around body organs.

question

Adipose connective tissue

answer

contains specialized cells called adipocytes make up ,most of the volume of the tissue.

question

Adipose tissue provides and functions how

answer

insulation, an energy reserve, support, protection and thermogenesis (brown fat) in infants.

question

Adipose tissue located

answer

primarily in the subcutaneous layer of skin and surrounding the heart & kidneys. also found in yellow bone marrow of long bones, padding around joints, and behind eyeball in eye socket.

question

Reticular connective tissue

answer

is characterized by having extensive reticular fibers running through it.

question

Reticular connective tissue

answer

forms stroma of organs and binds together smooth muscle tissue cells.

question

Reticular connective tissueis found

answer

in the stroma of the liver, spleen & lymph nodes and in the red bone marrow that gives

question

Dense CT consists of two sublcasses

answer

dense regular CT and dense irregular CT.

question

In dense regular connective tissue

answer

the collagen fibers arranged parallel to one another.

question

Dense CT functions

answer

to provides strong attachment between structures (withstands force in one direction).

question

Dense CT IS found

answer

in tendons (attaching muscle to bone), ligaments (attaching bone to bone), aponeuroses and elastic tissue.

question

Dense irregular connective tissue

answer

has interwoven mesh of fibers with no consistent pattern. It functions to provide strength in many directions.

question

Dense irregular connective tissue

answer

found in fasciae, the reticular layer of dermis, perichondrium, periosteum, joint capsules, dura mater (outer meninge), membrane capsules around various organs (kidneys, liver, testes, lymph nodes), heart valves

question

Bone

answer

provides for rigid, inflexible support.

question

Cartilage

answer

provides flexible support. Cartilage has a matrix that is a firm gel that contains chondroitin sulfates (polysaccharide derivative) which forms complexes with proteins in ground substance to form proteoglycans.

question

Hyaline cartilage

answer

is the most abundant type of cartilage. The matrix contains loosely packed collagen fibers. It is tough but flexible. It functions to provide smooth surfaces for movements and joints, flexibility, support. It is found on the ends of long bones, anterior ends of ribs, nose, parts of larynx, trachea, bronchi & bronchial tubes and the embryonic skeleton.

question

Elastic cartilage

answer

contains numerous elastic fibers which make it resilient and flexible. It provides flexible support and maintains shape. It is found in the epiglottis, external ear, auditory tubes

question

Fibrocartilage

answer

has very little ground substance. The matrix is dominated by collagen fibers which are densely interwoven. It functions in support and fusion. It is located in the pubic symphysis, intervertebral discs and menisci of knee.

question

Cartilage cells

answer

are called chondrocytes and are located inside hollow areas in the matrix that are called lacunae. The physical properties depend on type and abundance of EC fibers and proteoglycan components.

question

Cartilage is

answer

avascular which means that nutrient and waste diffusion must occur through matrix. Cartilage is surrounded by= a perichondrium which is composed of an outer fibrous layer (dense Irreg CT) and inner cellular layer. The outer layer is for attachment of structures to the cartilage and the inner cellular layer produces new cells.

question

Blood

answer

(vascular tissue) consists of plasma and formed elements (erythrocytes, leukocytes and platelets).

question

Eryrthrocutes

answer

function to transport O2 and some CO2.

question

Leukocytes

answer

function in phagocytosis& are involved in immune/allergic rxns. Platelets =function in clotting. Blood is located within the heart and blood vessels

question

Describe the structure of an epithelial membrane. List and define the three types of epithelial membranes (cutaneous, mucous and serous)

answer

Epithelial membranes consist of epithelial layer and underlying layer of CT connected to one another by a basement membrane. Synovial membranes lack a basement membrane, often have gaps between cells, and have primarily macrophages and fibroblasts as lining cells.

question

mucous membranes (mucosae)

answer

are wet membranes that line body cavities that open directly to exterior(line all of dig, resp and repro systems and much of urinary system).

question

Anatomy

answer

the study of the structure of the body

question

serous membranes (serosae

answer

)are wet membranes that line body cavities not open to exterior & cover organs that lie within those cavities. They consist of thin layers of areolar CT covered by a layer of mesothelium (simple squamous). The epithelial layer secretes serous fluid. Transudate is the fluid formed on surface of serous membrane. The membrane is composed of 2 layers the outer parietal layer lines walls of cavity and the inner visceral covers & attaches to organs. Serous membranes are named according to location (pleura, pericardium and peritoneum).

question

cutaneous membranes are

answer

dry membranes covering the external surface of body (skin). It consists of stratified squamous with underlying dense CT.

question

The three types of muscle tissue are

answer

smooth,cardiac,skeletal

question

smooth

answer

(surrounds organs and glands),

question

cardiac

answer

(wall of heart) and

question

skeletal

answer

(attached to bones).

question

Describe the structure, function and location of nervous tissue and its 2 major cell types

answer

Nervous tissue is found in the nervous system (see objective # 2). It consists of neurons and supporting cells. The neurons conduct impulses and the supporting cells aid the neurons. We will discuss this in more detail in chapter 11.

question

Describe the three stages of tissue repair (inflammation, organization and regeneration/fibrosis).

answer

Inflammation causes isolation of the damaged area and cleans up dangerous microorganisms. Damaged cells release chemicals that activate mast cells. Mast cells release histamine which cause increased blood flow and increased vessel permeability. This increases the oxygen, nutrients and phagocytes to the area and facilitates waste removal.

question

Organization

answer

restores the blood supply to the damaged area. This occurs at the same time as inflammation. Blood clot is replaced by granulation tissue.

question

Regeneration

answer

repairs or replaces the damaged tissues to restore normal function. New cells migrate into area. If instead of cells of the original tissue migrating into the area, fibrous connective tissue moves in, then there is the formation of scar tissue and this step would result in fibrosis.

question

Atrophy

answer

decrease in size of organ or tissue

question

Programmed cell death

answer

idea that the timing of the death of a cell is coded in the cells genes.

question

Telomere clock

answer

the telomeres, which are the ends of chromosomes, may have a way of counting the number of times a chromosome is copied and then allow for its destruction after being copied a certain number of times.

question

Physiology

answer

the study of the function of the body

question

Chemical level

answer

represents the atoms and molecules that make up cells (Consists of Atomic level and molecular level)

question

Cellular level

answer

represents the basic unit of all living things

question

Tissue level

answer

a group of cells with similar or common function

question

Organ level

answer

a group of tissues with similar or common function

question

Organ system level

answer

a group of organs with similar or common function

question

Organismic level

answer

the entire body consisting of the various organ systems.

question

Integumentary System

answer

controls body temperature & protects body from environmental hazards

question

Skeletal System

answer

supports body, protects soft body parts, stores minerals, forms blood cells

question

Muscular System

answer

movement, support and produces heat

question

Nervous System

answer

controls immediate responses to stimuli

question

Endocrine System

answer

controls long-term responses in body

question

Cardiovascular System

answer

internal transport of nutrients, wastes, oxygen, carbon dioxide and cells

question

Lymphatic & Immune Systems

answer

defense, immunity and returns lost fluids to cardiovascular system

question

Respiratory System

answer

exchange of air and delivery of blood gases to/from tissues

question

Digestive System

answer

ingestion, breakdown and absorption of food & elimination of indigestible wastes

question

Urinary System

answer

filtration of blood to maintain proper water and salt balance and to eliminate waste products

question

Reproductive System

answer

produces sex cells and hormones related to reproduction

question

homeostasis

answer

condition in which body's internal environment remains within certain narrow physiological limits

question

homeostatic regulation

answer

adjustment of physiological system to maintain homeostasis

question

receptor

answer

monitors change in controlled condition (stimulus) and sends input to control center

question

control (integration) center

answer

receives input from receptor & determines appropriate response

question

effector

answer

cell or organ that receives information (output) from control center and produces a response (effect)

question

interactions of a feedback system

answer

stimulus -> receptor -> input (afferent pathway) -> control center -> output (efferent pathway) -> response

question

positive feedback

answer

the response by the effector to the initial change is to further exaggerate the change. Example in labor contractions, the contraction of the uterus forces the baby towards the birth canal, which places pressure on the cervix; the pressure of the baby against the cervix causes uterine contraction, etc.

question

Negative feedback

answer

the response by the effector to the initial change is to counter or reduce that change, thus bringing the system back to its "normal" state. Example When blood sugar level rises, the pancreas secretes insulin which causes the cells of the body to take in glucose, thus removing glucose from the blood and lowering blood sugar level

question

Anatomical position

answer

patient is erect, feet apart and palms facing anteriorly

question

Cranial

answer

upper portion of head surrounding brain

question

Facial

answer

face

question

cervical

answer

neck

question

thoracic

answer

chest

question

axillary

answer

armpit

question

acromial

answer

point of shoulder

question

deltoid

answer

fleshy portion of shoulder

question

brachial

answer

upper arm

question

antebrachial

answer

forearm

question

antecubital

answer

front of elbow

question

carpal

answer

wrist

question

manual

answer

hand

question

digital (phalangeal)

answer

fingers or toes

question

abdominal

answer

region of trunk between diaphragm and pelvis

question

dorsal

answer

back

question

lumbar

answer

lower back

question

olecranol

answer

back of elbow

question

pelvic

answer

pelvis

question

pubic

answer

anterior pelvis

question

inguinal

answer

junction of trunk and thighs (groin)

question

gluteal

answer

buttocks

question

femoral

answer

thigh

question

patellar

answer

front of knee

question

popliteal

answer

back of knee

question

crural

answer

anterior of lower leg (shin)

question

sural

answer

posterior of lower leg (calf)

question

tarsal

answer

ankle

question

pedal

answer

foot

question

plantar

answer

bottom of foot

question

superior (

answer

cephalic = cranial) = towards the head

question

inferior (

answer

caudal) = away from the head

question

anterior (ventral)

answer

towards the front

question

posterior (dorsal)

answer

towards the back

question

medial

answer

towards the midline

question

lateral

answer

away from the midline

question

proximal

answer

towards the point of attachment (limbs)

question

distal

answer

away from the point of attachment (limbs)

question

superficial

answer

towards the surface (i.e., skin)

question

deep

answer

away from the surface

question

Sagittal

answer

separates the body into right and left parts

question

Midsaggital

answer

median = separates the body into equal right and left parts

question

Parasaggital

answer

separates the body into unequal right and left parts

question

Frontal

answer

coronal = separates the body into anterior and posterior parts

question

Transverse

answer

horizontal - cross-sectional -separates the body into superior and inferior parts

question

.Cephalic

answer

head

question

dorsal body

answer

The two major cavities of the body are the dorsal body cavity and the ventral body cavity.

question

ventral body

answer

The organs in the ventral body cavity are surrounded by serous membranes which allow for organ movement. There are no serous membranes in he dorsal body cavity.

question

The dorsal body cavity

answer

surrounds the brain and spinal cord.

question

It is separated into two subdivisions

answer

the cranial cavity surrounds the brain and the spinal cavity surrounds the spinal cord.

question

The ventral body cavity

answer

includes the thoracic cavity and the abdominopelvic cavity.

question

The thoracic cavity

answer

is the cavity superior to the diaphragm and the abdominopelvic cavity is inferior to the diaphragm.

question

The thoracic cavity is further subdivided into

answer

two pleural cavities, which contain the lungs, one pericardial cavity, which contains the heart, and the mediastinum, which is the central region of the thoracic cavity containing the esophagus and trachea.

question

The abdominopelvic cavity

answer

is separated into two regions, which are not truly separated from one another in the body.

question

These are the abdominal cavity,

answer

which contains primarily the digestive organs and the pelvic cavity, which contains primarily the reproductive and urinary organs.

question

Serous membranes (also called serosae)

answer

are found within the ventral body cavity. They consist of two layers of membrane with fluid =(called serous fluid) in between the two layers.

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The inner layer

answer

which is closest to the organ, is called the visceral layer.

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The outer layer

answer

which is closest to the body wall, is called the parietal layer.

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Pleura

answer

serous membranes surrounding lungs

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parietal pleura

answer

outer serous membrane surrounding lungs

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visceral pleura

answer

inner serous membrane surrounding lungs

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Pericardium

answer

serous membranes surrounding heart

question

parietal percardium

answer

outer serous membrane surrounding heart

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visceral pericardium

answer

inner serous membrane surrounding heart

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Peritoneum

answer

serous membranes lining organs in the abdominopelvic cavity (surrounding digestive, reproductive and

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urinary organs)

answer

...

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parietal peritoneum

answer

outer serous membrane surrounding organs in the abdominopelvic region

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visceral peritoneum

answer

inner serous membrane surrounding organs in the abdominopelvic region

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Imagine drawing a cross in the abdominopelvic region with the lines intersecting at the umbilicus. These represent the quadrants. Remember when naming the quadrants and regions that right and left refer to the patient's right and left. The quadrants are as follows

answer

...

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Right Upper Quadrant Left Upper Quadrant

answer

...

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Right Lower Quadrant Left Lower Quadrant

answer

...

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Now imagine drawing a "tic tac toe" in the abdominopelvic region with the umbilicus in the center of the middle square. The nine regions are as follows

answer

...

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Right Hypochondriac Epigastric Left Hypochondriac

answer

...

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Right Lumbar Umbilical Left Lumbar

answer

...

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Right Iliac Hypogastric Left Iliac

answer

...

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oral

answer

cavity of mouth

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digestive

answer

cavity inside the digestive tract

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nasal

answer

cavity inside nose

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orbital

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cavity around eyes

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middle ear

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cavity between eardrum and inner ear

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synovial

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cavity surrounding some types of joints

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Matter

answer

is anything that occupies space and has mass.

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The three states of matter are

answer

solid, liquid and gas.

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How do they differ from each other

answer

They differ from one another primarily in the distance between molecules and the motion of molecules.

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In gases

answer

molecules are far apart there is a lot of motion.

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Liquids

answer

have less movement of molecules and shorter distances between molecules than gases.

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Solids

answer

have less movement of molecules and shorter distances between molecules than liquids.

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Element

answer

building blocks of matter; each element is unique in its atomic structure and has its own unique properties

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Atom

answer

building blocks or basic units of elements

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Subatomic particle

answer

the particles that make up an atom; i.e., protons, neutrons and electrons

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Proton

answer

positively charged subatomic particle that resides in the nucleus of an atom

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neutron

answer

uncharged subatomic particle that resides in the nucleus of an atom

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electron

answer

negatively charged subatomic particle that resides in the energy levels (shells) of an atom

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Ionic bonds

answer

occur when one atoms gives electron(s) to another atom. When electrons are transferred, the atom that loses electrons becomes a cation and the atom that gains electrons becomes an anion. The two atoms are then attracted to one another due the attraction of opposite charges.

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Covalent bonds

answer

occur when two atoms share electrons. Because they share electrons, the two atoms are held together.

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Polar covalent bonds

answer

are bonds where electrons are shared unequally. As a result, one side becomes slightly positively charged and the other side becomes slightly negatively charged (and we call this polar).

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Nonpolar covalent bonds

answer

are bonds where electrons are shared equally; there is no separation of charge.

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Single covalent bonds

answer

two atoms share 1 pair of electrons

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Double covalent bonds

answer

two atoms share 2 pair of electrons

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Triple covalent bonds

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two atoms share 3 pair of electrons

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A hydrogen bond is

answer

a weak attraction between hydrogen of one molecule (or section of molecule) and the oxygen or nitrogen of one molecule (or section of molecule). Rather than holding atoms together within a molecule like covalent and ionic bonds do, hydrogen bonds typically occur between molecules or regions of a molecule. The attraction is due to the slight positive charge found on hydrogen that is in a polar covalent bond and the slight negative charge found on either oxygen or nitrogen that are also in a polar covalent bond.

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Reactants

answer

are present initially.

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Products

answer

are present after the reaction occurs

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Metabolism

answer

the sum of all chemical reactions in the cell (or body)

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Kinetic energy

answer

energy of particles in motion

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Potential energy

answer

stored energy (bond energy is potential)

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Exergonic reaction

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reaction that releases energy (goes from high energy reactants to low energy products and excess energy is released)

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Endergonic reaction

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reaction that requires energy (goes from low energy reactants to high energy products)

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Synthesis reaction

answer

building of large molecules from smaller units (usually requires energy); A + B or AB

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Decomposition reaction

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break down of large molecules into smaller units (usually releases energy); AB or A + B

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Exchange reaction

answer

exchange of atoms or between reactants (may either release or require energy);AB + CD or AC + BD

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Reduction-oxidation reactions

answer

involve the transfer of electrons from one molecule to another. This type of reaction is often classified as a special type of exchange reaction. Marieb also describes it as a type of decomposition reaction.

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Metabolism

answer

sum of all chemical reactions in the body (or cell).

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Catabolism

answer

metabolic activities that result in breaking down large molecules into smaller components

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Anabolism

answer

metabolic activities that result in build large molecules from smaller components .

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Organic compounds

answer

contain carbon and hydrogen;

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inorganic compounds

answer

do not.

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properties of water

answer

Water is polar which means that there is a partial positive charge near the hydrogens and a partial negative charge near the oxygen. The polarity of water makes it able to conduct an electrical current. It also makes it a good solvent because it can dissolve other polar molecules and ionic compounds (by separating the molecules when the charges (partial for polar and whole for ionic) on this molecule are attracted to the partial charges on the water molecule). Things that dissolve in water are called hydrophilic. Things that do not dissolve in water but are repelled by water are called hydrophobic.

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Water molecules are held together by

answer

hydrogen bonds. These hydrogen bonds give water its fluidity. The tendency of water molecules to stick to one another is called cohesion. Water molecules will also stick to other charged surfaces; this is called adhesion. As a result of cohesion, water has a high surface tension (the force required to break the surface). As a result of cohesion and adhesion, water exhibits capillary action (the tendency to rise up a tube and flow through a tube).

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Also due to hydrogen bonds,

answer

water functions to stabilize temperature because it resists temperature changes (has high specific heat). In order to change the temperature of any substance, the molecules must move faster. To make water molecules move faster, we first have to break hydrogen bonds, which requires energy. Using the same reasoning, water also does not change to the gaseous state easily (has high heat of vaporization). In addition, because of hydrogen bonds, when water freezes there is a lot of space between molecules. This makes water in its solid state less dense that water in its liquid state (ice floats). If ice did not float, life on earth would probably not exist (at least in areas subjected to freezing temperatures because after freezing at the interface with the air the ice would sink, then more water would freeze and sink, etc. Soon the entire body of water would be frozen solid.

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Acid

answer

substance that releases H+ in water

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Base

answer

substance that accepts H+ in water; OR substance that releases OH- in water

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Salt

answer

ionic compound that breaks down into anions and cations in water

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Neutralization

answer

the movement of pH towards neutral (occurs when an acid and base are combined).

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Buffer

answer

substance that resists changes in pH; composed of a weak acid and a weak base so that it can either release or accept H+ depending on conditions.

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The pH scale

answer

is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration in solution. The scale goes from 0 to 14. PH : -log[H+]. PH -7 is neutral and represents a H+ concentration of 10-7.

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As H+ concentration increases,

answer

the pH decreases. PH7 = basic.

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Each change in pH of one whole unit

answer

represents a 10-fold change in hydrogen ion concentration.

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Hydrolysis

answer

the breaking down of polymers (large molecules composed of repeating subunits) into monomers (the building blocks ) by adding water

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Dehydration synthesis

answer

the formation of polymers from monomers by removing water

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CARBOHYDRATES

answer

the monomers of carbohydrates are monosaccharides; the polymers are disaccharides and polysaccharides.

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polar compounds

answer

that dissolve well in water.

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Carbohydrates are

answer

essentially hydrated carbon compounds (CH2O).

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Carbohydrates have two major functions

answer

energy and structural support.

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Monosaccharides are generally burned to produce energy.

answer

...

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Polysaccharides are either used to store energy (starch in plants, glycogen in animals) or for structural support.

answer

...

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LIPIDS

answer

Lipids are a structurally diverse group of molecules that are lumped together on the basis of their inability to dissolve in water (they are nonpolar).

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The glycerides

answer

are composed of a glycerol (three-carbon) backbone with fatty acids attached.

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In a monoglyceride

answer

1 fatty acid is attached to glycerol;

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In a diglyceride

answer

2 fatty acids are attached to glycerol.

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In a triglyceride

answer

3 fatty acids are attached to glycerol.

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Triglycerides are also called neutral fats and their function is long-term energy storage, protection and insulation.

answer

...

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Steroids

answer

are composed of 4 interlocking carbon rings. There are a lot of different steroids with different functions. The primary functions include acting as chemical messengers (hormones) and stabilizing cell membranes (cholesterol) and facilitating fat digestion (bile).

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Eicosanoids

answer

function as chemical messengers that coordinate local cellular activities

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Phospholipids and glycolipids

answer

are lipids that have phosphate-containing groups or sugars attached to them; they function as components of cell membranes

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PROTEINS

answer

Proteins are a functionally diverse group of molecules with very similar primary structures. They consist of amino acids bonded to one another by peptide bonds.

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The functions of proteins is variable, including

answer

catalysis (enzymes), transport (plasma membrane proteins, hemoglobin& lipoproteins), chemical messengers (some hormones and neurotransmitters), immunity and defense.

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NUCLEIC ACIDS

answer

are chains of nucleotides bonded to one another (i.e., monomers = nucleotides;

question

polymers

answer

nucleic acids).

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Nucleic acids function

answer

in containing hereditary information, containing information about proteins and performing protein synthesis.

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The first Structural levels of organization

answer

the primary sequence is the linear sequence of amino acids in the chain.

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The secondary structural levels of organization sequence

answer

is the twisting or coiling of the linear chain, which results from hydrogen bonds that occur at regular intervals along the chain.

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The Third structural levels of organization

answer

tertiary sequence is the folding of the coiled chain and is a result of interactions between R groups, which means that it varies depending on the primary structure.

question

fourth structural levels of organization

answer

the tertiary structure is the aggregation of two or more coiled chains. The 3-D shape of a protein influences its function. The tertiary sequence is critical in dictating the overall 3-dimensional shape. The surface of the molecule will contain regions for binding to other molecules; the shape of these regions is critical to proper functioning.

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The two structural classes of proteins are

answer

globular proteins and fibrous proteins. Globular proteins typically function in providing structural framework & mechanical support or movement.

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Globular proteins tend to serve a wider variety of functions, including

answer

catalysis (enzymes), molecular chaperones, transport, regulate pH, regulate metabolism and defense.

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Enzyme

answer

a molecule composed at least partially of protein which catalyzes a biochemical reaction

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Apoenzyme

answer

the protein portion of an enzyme that requires a cofactor (or coenzyme)

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Holoenzyme

answer

the apoenzyme + cofactor (or coenzyme)

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Cofactor

answer

a substance that may be required for the proper functioning of an enzyme, which is either a metal ion or a coenzyme

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Coenzyme

answer

a large organic molecule that may be required for the proper functioning of an enzyme

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RNA consists of a single strand of nucleotides. It functions in protein synthesis and the formation of ribosomes.

answer

...

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DNA consists

answer

of two strands of nucleotides (at least in humans and most other organisms) that are twisted to form a helix. It functions in passing hereditary information from one generation to the next and in containing

question

instructions for making all proteins within the cell.

answer

...

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ADP

answer

(adenosine diphosphate)

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ATP

answer

(adenosine triphosphate).

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ATP

answer

is the energy currency of the cell. When excess energy is given off from a chemical energy, the energy is used to make ATP from ADP, which stores it for use elsewhere. When energy is needed to drive a chemical reaction ATP is broken down to ADP and the energy from that terminal bond is released.

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Monosaccharides are

answer

the monomers of carbohydrates; the most common is glucose. It is used as a direct energy source.

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Polysaccharides are

answer

carbohydrate polymers that are formed by dehydration synthesis that attaches many monosaccharides together.

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Polysaccharides are used

answer

to store energy (starch in plants, glycogen in animals) or for structural support (cellulose in plants and chitin in some animals).

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Fatty acids

answer

are monomers of triglycerides.

question

Triglycerides

answer

are lipid polymers and are composed of a glycerol (three-carbon) backbone with fatty acids attached.

question

BONUS:Triglycerides are also

answer

called neutral fats and their function is long-term energy storage, protection and insulation.

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Steroids are

answer

lipids composed of 4 interlocking carbon rings. There are a lot of different steroids with different functions.

question

the primary functions of steriods

answer

include acting as chemical messengers (hormones) and stabilizing cell membranes (cholesterol) and facilitating fat digestion (bile).

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Amino acids

answer

are the building blocks (monomers) of proteins;

question

Peptide bonds

answer

are the bonds that form between amino acids in a polypeptide chain.

question

nucleotides

answer

are the monomers of nucleic acids.

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The plasma membrane

answer

is a double layer (bilayer) of phospholipid molecules with proteins and cholesterol imbedded in the membrane and sugar and proteins attached to the surfaces.

question

The phospholipid bilayer is arranged

answer

with the phosphate heads pointing outward and the fatty acid tails pointing toward one another.

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The phospholipids

answer

form the basic backbone of the membrane and function to physically isolate the cell from its surroundings.

question

The phospholipids do what

answer

also allow very small molecules to pass through the membrane. The cholesterol molecules that are interspersed between phospholipids function to stabilize the membrane and give it some rigidity. The proteins in the membrane serve a variety of functions.

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The sugars in the membrane

answer

are attached to other molecules and function in cell adhesion and recognition.

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Phospholipids

answer

physically isolate the cell from its surroundings and allow very small molecules to pass through the membrane.

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Glycolipids

answer

sugar attached to phospholipid; function in cell adhesion and recognition.

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Cholesterol

answer

stabilize the membrane and give it some rigidity.

question

Integral proteins are

answer

embedded into the phospholipid bilayer and may either extend all the way or partially through the bilayer.

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Peripheral proteins

answer

are not embedded into the bilayer but rest on the inner and outer phospholipid surfaces.

question

. Anchoring proteins

answer

serve as attachment points for the cytoskeleton to provide structural support and shape.

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Recognition proteins

answer

allow for cells to identify other cells in order to protect the body against invaders. Some membrane proteins function as enzymes to catalyze reactions that occur at the membrane surface.

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Receptor proteins are

answer

proteins that bind to particular molecules which then alters the activity of the cell. Carrier proteins and channel proteins both function in transport of materials across the membrane.

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Carrier proteins

answer

actually bind to molecules and carry them across the membrane.

question

Channels

answer

are protein-lined paths that allow for materials to pass through the membrane.

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The membrane is composed of

answer

carbohydrates are the glycolipids and glycoproteins, which are sugars added to lipids and proteins, respectively. Together they make up the glycocalyx, which refers to the outer, sticky region of the plasma membrane. It is only on the side of the membrane facing the extracellular fluid.

question

The glycocalyx functions

answer

in cell adhesion, recognition and immunity.

question

Membranes of adjacent cells are

answer

usually interconnected by the adhesive properties of the glycocalyx. Often, wavy surface contours can "interlock" adjacent cells as well.

question

There are 3 types of special junctions

answer

tight junctons, desmosomes and gap junctions.

question

Tight junctions form fluid-tight seals between cells to prevent leaking. These are common among epithelial cells that line stomach, intestines and bladder.

answer

...

question

Desmosomes are

answer

anchoring junctions that fasten cells to one another or to the extracellular material. These are common in tissues subjected to friction & stretching (skin and heart muscle).

question

Gap junctions are

answer

communicating junctions between adjacent cells that allow the movement of ions & small molecules to pass through pores from one cell to the next. These are present in heart and smooth muscle where ion flow synchronizes activity to generate coordinated contractions.

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Sometimes cells will interact directly with other cells, but often they are responding to extracellular chemicals found within body fluids (e.g. hormones & neurotransmitters). Cells also interact with surrounding chemicals to help guide them during development and repair. In both the direct and indirect interactions, the glycocalyx is involved. One group of molecules in the glycocalyx are cell adhesion molecules (CAMS) that function in embryonic development, wound repair and immunity. The glycocalyx also consists of membrane proteins that act as receptors. Some of the receptors respond to contact with other cells (contact signaling) while others respond to specific chemicals (

answer

ligands) that bind to them. Examples of ligands include neurotransmitters and hormones. Some receptors may have a direct influence on the membrane while others use a regulatory molecule called a G protein and internal second messengers to regulate cell activities.

question

Passive transport processes require what

answer

do not require the expenditure of energy while active processes require the use of energy.

question

Types of Passive processes

answer

include diffusion, osmosis, filtration and facilitated diffusion.

question

Type of Active processes

answer

include active transport and vesicular transport.

question

Concentration gradient

answer

a difference in the concentration between two areas.

question

Simple Diffusion

answer

movement of solutes across a membrane from an area of high solute concentration to an area of low solute concentration without the use of membrane carriers or energy.

question

Facilitated diffusion

answer

movement of solutes across a membrane from an area of high solute concentration to an area of low solute concentration using membrane carriers but without the use of energy.

question

filtration

answer

the relatively unselective movement of solutes across a membrane from an area of high pressure to an area of low pressure without the use of membrane carriers or energy.

question

Osmosis

answer

movement of water across a membrane from an area of high water concentration to an area of low water concentration without the use of membrane carriers or energy.

question

Active transport

answer

movement of solutes across a membrane from an area of low concentration to high concentration using both energy and protein carriers.

question

vesicular transport

answer

movement of substances across a membrane by forming a vesicle (membranous sac), which requires the use of energy and can go from high to low or low to high concentration.

question

endocytosis

answer

movement of substances INTO the cell by forming a vesicle (membranous sac) and expending energy; this includes phagocytosis, bulk-phase endocytosis and receptor-mediated endocytosis

question

exocytosis

answer

movement of substances OUT OF the cell by forming a vesicle (membranous sac) and expending energy

question

phagocytosis

answer

movement of LARGE PARTICLES (FOOD, DEBRIS, BACTERIA ETC.) into the cell by forming a vesicle (membranous sac) and expending energy

question

pinocytosis

answer

fluid-phase endocytosis = endocytosis of droplets of extracellular material (which includes fluid that contains dissolved molecules

question

receptor-mediated endocytosis

answer

this is endocytosis that involves specific uptake of large molecules; the key difference here is the specificity (performed by the receptor).

question

Hydrostatic pressure

answer

the pressure exerted by water on a membrane

question

osmotic pressure

answer

pressure exerted to prevent the flow of water due to concentration gradient (this opposes the hydrostatic pressure)

question

tonicity

answer

behavior of cells in solution

question

isotonic

answer

an isotonic solution is a solution that has the SAME solute concentration as the cell

question

hypotonic

answer

a hypotonic solution is a solution that has a LOWER solute concentration than the cell

question

hypertonic

answer

a hypertonic solution is a solution that has a HIGHER solute concentration than the cell

question

crenation

answer

the shriveling of a cell as a result of losing water when placed in a hypertonic solution

question

lysis

answer

the bursting of a cell as a result of gaining water when placed in a hypotonic solution

question

Cytosol

answer

cytosol is the "fluid" portion of the cytoplasm; it contains water and dissolved proteins, carbohydrates and lipids; it has the consistency of jello

question

Organelles

answer

organelles are the functional units inside the cell; each has its own function to perform

question

Inclusions

answer

inclusions are substances contained in the cell such as pigment molecules (melanin) and energy storage molecules (fats and glycogen)

question

Nucleus

answer

controls all cell activities by containing instructions for protein synthesis; also contains hereditary material (DNA).

question

Nucleoplasm

answer

the semi-solid, semi-liquid substance that resides inside the nucleus (analagous to the cytosol of the cell).

question

nuclear envelope

answer

regulates flow of materials between nucleus and cytoplasm

question

nucleoli

answer

nucleolus (singular)helps form ribosomes

question

chromatin

answer

DNA + proteins makes DNA contains instructions for making proteins and are passed to new cells and offspring during cell division (heredity); chromatin is the term used when the individual chromosomes are not distinguishable.

question

ribosomes

answer

protein synthesis

question

free

answer

produce proteins to be used in the cytoplasm

question

membrane bound

answer

produce proteins to be used in the plasma membrane (or endomembrane) or to be exported from cell (secreted)

question

rough ER

answer

synthesis of proteins to be used in the plasma membrane or to be exported from cell (secreted)

question

smooth ER

answer

lipid metabolism

question

golgi apparatus

answer

transport, packaging and modification of proteins; produces secretory vesicles; produces lysosomes

question

lysosomes

answer

intracellular (inside cell) digestion; rid cell of worn out organelles; cell death (suicide)

question

peroxisomes

answer

break down harmful free radicals (by-products of metabolism)

question

mitochondria

answer

produce energy (ATP); cellular respiration (break down of nutrients into carbon dioxide and water which liberates energy)

question

cytoskeleton

answer

provide structural support; maintain cell shape; faciliate movement of cell and organelles; movement of chromosomes during division

question

microvilli

answer

minute, finger-like projections of the plasma membrane (on the exposed surface); major function is to increase surface area of the membrane; usually found on absorptive surfaces

question

cilia

answer

movement of materials across the cell

question

flagella

answer

movement of cell through medium (e.g., sperm)

question

centrosome

answer

an anchor for microtubules that is located near the nucleus and acts as an organizing center for the microtubules. Centrioles are located within the centrosome.

question

centrioles

answer

help form the anchor of the mitotic spindle which separates chromosomes during division..

question

Inclusions

answer

inclusions are substances contained in the cell such as pigment molecules (melanin), stored nutrients (fats and glycogen) and various types of crystals.

question

The cell cycle

answer

is the time from the formation of a cell until that cell finishes dividing itself. It includes interphase and mitotic phase (mitosis).

question

In interphase

answer

the cell is performing all of its functions other than dividing.

question

In mitosis

answer

the cell is dividing.

question

interphase the cell undergoes all of its normal daily metabolism (protein synthesis, digestion, cellular respiration, etc.).

answer

...

question

During S (

answer

synthesis) the cell makes a copy of each of its chromosomes DNA replication).

question

During G2

answer

the cell produces enzymes and other materials needed for mitosis.

question

In DNA replication

answer

, each chromosome unwinds and the two strands unzip from one another. A new strand is build using each of the two unzipped strands as templates. Now each chromosome has an exact duplicate (called sister chromatid) and each chromatid consists of a new strand attached to an old strand.

question

Mitosis is

answer

the division of the nuclear material and cytokinesis is the division of cytoplasmic material (which coincides with the last stage of mitosis).

question

The stages of mitosis are

answer

prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase.

question

In prophase

answer

the nuclear membrane breaks down, the chromosomes condense and the mitotic spindle forms. In metaphase the chromosomes line up at the equator of the cell and are attached to the spindle by their centromeres.

question

In anaphase

answer

the sister chromatids (exact copies of one another) are separated from one another by the shortening of the proteins in the mitotic spindle. One set of chromatids is pulled to one side of the cell and the other set is pulled to the other side of the cell.

question

In telophase

answer

the chromatids have arrived at the two opposite poles of the cell, the nuclear membrane begins to reform and the chromosomes begin to decondense (lengthen out again).

question

Cytokinesis

answer

is the division of the cytoplasm of the cell and it occurs during telophase.

question

Transcription occurs

answer

in the nucleus and translation occurs in the cytoplasm (at the ribosomes)

question

DNA

answer

contains the information on how to make all of the proteins that the cell synthesizes.

question

mRNA

answer

messenger RNA is a "transcript" of the section of DNA that describes how to make a particular protein

question

tRNA

answer

transfer RNA the RNA that is hooked to an amino acid that brings the amino acids and attaches them to the growing protein

question

rRNA

answer

ribosomal RNA the RNA that forms part of the ribosome

question

In transcription

answer

a section of DNA containing the instructions for a particular proteins is exposed and a mRNA is built by matching the bases to the DNA (mRNA is made from DNA)

question

Genetic code

answer

the way that amino acid sequences of a protein are encyrpted or encoded in the nucleotide base sequences of DNA.

question

3 bases of DNA

answer

1 word in the genetic language and represents an amino acid

question

Codon

answer

the three nucleotide base sequence of mRNA corresponding to a particular amino acid

question

Anticodon

answer

the three nucleotide base sequence of tRNA that will be matched to the codon of the mRNA

question

Translation is

answer

the formation of a polypeptide chain (protein) from a mRNA molecule.

question

The mRNA

answer

connects to a ribosome and is read three nucleotides at a time (one word or codon).

question

tRNA

answer

brings in the matching anticodon and the amino acid that is attached. This amino acid is attached to the growing protein by a peptide bond and then the next codon is read. This continues until a STOP word is reached and translation ends.

question

The 3 types of extracellular materials are

answer

body fluids, cellular secretions and extracellular matrix.

question

Body fluids are important

answer

in transporting and dissolving substances (e.g., interstitial fluid, blood, cerebrospinal fluid).

question

Cellular secretions include

answer

substances released by cells for digestion (intestinal and gastric fluids) and lubrication (saliva, mucus and serous fluid).

question

Extracellular matrix

answer

is a jelly-like substance outside of cells composed of proteins and polysaccharides. It is secreted by cells and creates a mesh that surrounds cells.

question

Differentiation

answer

a developmental process by which cells become more and more specialized for a particular function.

question

Apoptosis

answer

programmed cell death.

question

Hyperplasia

answer

accelerated growth

question

Tissue

answer

collection of specialized cells and cell products that perform a relatively limited number of functions

question

Histology

answer

study of tissues

question

EPITHELIAL

answer

covers exposed body surfaces lines internal passageways, hollow organs, body cavities and ducts forms glands

question

CONNECTIVE

answer

Tendons, ligaments, under epithelia, blood, bone, cartilage fills internal spaces structural support & protection for other tissues tranport of materials binds organs together stores energy reserves as fat

question

MUSCLE

answer

In muscles movement & generation of force generates heat

question

NERVOUS

answer

brain, spinal cord, nerves and sensory receptors

question

carries information from one part of body to another via electrical impulses

answer

...

question

List and describe the two major types of epithelial tissue

answer

covering and lining epithelium forms superficial layer of skin and some internal organs forms inner lining of blood vessels, ducts, body cavities forms interiors of respiratory, digestive, urinary and repro systems glandular epithelium constitutes secreting portion of glands

question

The six major functions of epithelial tissue include

answer

absorption, protection, excretion, filtration, secretion and sensory reception.

question

Epithelial tissue characteristics

answer

is highly cellular, which means it is composed primarily of closely-packed cells; very little space and EC material. It often has specialized cell junctions where cells bound closely together by one or more types of intercellular connections (i.e., tight junctions, gap junctions and desmosomes). It exhibits polarity such that it has apical and basal surfaces that differ from one another. Cellular organelles are often unevenly distributed between apical and basal surfaces. Epithelial tissue attaches to underlying connective tissue by a basement membrane. Epithelial tissue is avascular and must receive nutrients from blood vessels located in adjacent connective tissue by diffusion. It has high regeneration capacity since epithelium must continually repair & replace itself. It is innervated (has nerves) and often has specializations such microvilli (outward foldings of membrane to increase surface area) and cilia (hairlike extensions of membrane for movement of materials across surface).

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tight junctions form fluid

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tight seals between cells common among epithelial cells that line stomach, intestines and bladder prevent fluid in cavity from leaking into body

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anchoring junctions (desmosomes)

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fasten cells to one another or to EC materialcommon in tissues subjected to friction & stretching outer layer of skin, muscle tissue of heart, neck of uterus, epithelial lining of GI tract

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surface)

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exposed to body exterior or cavity or lining of organ

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basal surface

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attached surface (attached to basement membrane)

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basement membrane

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consists of thin extracellular layer that attaches epithelium to underlying connective tissue.

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basal lamina

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noncellular, adhesive that provides barrier that restricts movement of proteins and other large molecules from underlying connective tissue into epithelium; contains glycoproteins and protein filaments which are secreted by epithelium

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reticular lamina

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contain reticular fibers & bundles of protein fibers which provide strength; it is secreted by CT

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Epithelia are classified

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based on numbers of layers into simple and stratified epithelium.

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Simple epithelium

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consists of a single layer of cells and primarily functions in diffusion, osmosis, filtration, secretion & absorption.

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Stratified epithelium

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consists of 2 or more layers and often functions in protection in areas with lots of wear and tear

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Epithelia are classified

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based on cell shape ( as viewed in cross-section).

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Squamous epithelium

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has cells that are thin & flat and generally allow rapid movement of substances through them.

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Cuboidal epithelia

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are cube-shaped (approximately equal height and width) and generally function in secretion & absorption.

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Columnar epithelia

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are column-shaped (taller than they are wide).

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simple squamous

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single layer of flat cells that are found in areas subjected to little wear and tear, which function in absorption &/or secretion.

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simple squamous

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are found lining heart, blood vessels & lymph vessels (= endothelium), in the epithelial layer of serous membranes (= mesothelium) and lining the alveoli (air sacs) of lungs

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stratified squamous

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Many lauers; superficial cells flat; deep cells cuboidal to columnar. The deepest cells divide and shift to surface; as cells move toward surface they get farther from blood supply (underlying connective tissue); cells get dehydrated, shrunken and harder; at surface they lose junctions and are sloughed off & replaced.

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stratified squamous

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Primarily functions in protection and is found in the superficial layer of skin (epidermis) and lining wet surfaces (mouth, esophagus, tongue & part of epiglottis & vagina)

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simple cuboidal

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A single layer of cube-shaped cells that function in secretion & absorption and are located lining glands & ducts.

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transitional

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Transitional is composed of many layers but the appearance of individual cells changes due to stretching; Typically the superficial layer is not as flat as in stratified squamous.

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transitional

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is found in the urinary bladder and ureters.

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simple columnar

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...

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Single layer of column-shaped cells. Contains goblet cells & microvilli & cilia in some locations

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...

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(microvilli

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cytoplasmic projections that increase membrane surface area). Functions to propel fluids or particles along passageway and in secretion and absorption. It lines the stomach, intestine gallbladder and uterine tubes.

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pseudostratified ciliated columnar

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...

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Single layer of column-shaped cells with cilia.The nuclei are at varying depths and all cells are attached to basement membrane in single layer but not all reach apical surface.

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...

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Cells that reach surface does what

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either secrete mucus or bear cilia. It functions in protection, secretion and movement of mucus by cilia and is located in the trachea & bronchi

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The function of glandular epithelium

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is secretion which is accomplished by glandular cells that often lie in clusters deep to covering and lining epithelium. The gland may consist of one cell or group of specialized epithelial cells

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Endocrine glands are ductless glands. Secretions enter EC fluid and then diffuse directly into bloodstream.

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...

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(glandular epitheluim)Secretions are called hormones

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Exocrine contain ducts. Secretions flow onto surface of covering & lining epithelium via tubelike ducts. Secretions include= mucus, perspiration, skin oil, ear wax, milk and digestive enzymes (sweat glands and salivary glands)

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In merocrine glands

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the secretion is released from secretory vesicle via exocytosis.

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In an apocrine gland

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, cells lose some cytoplasm as well as secretory product; apical portion of cytoplasm packed with vesicles and is shed.

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In a holocrine gland

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, the entire cell packed with secretory product and cell bursts open.

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Connective tissue characterists are

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is widely distributed throughout body but not exposed to exterior. It is a binding and connecting type of tissue rather than a lining like epithelial. It has highly variable structure and function.

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Connective tissue consists of sparsely distributed cells with lots of extracellular matrix. The matrix is composed of ground substance and protein fibers. CT is very variable in its degree of innervation and vascularization.

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...

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Connective tissue is made up

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of cells and extracellular matrix.

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The extracellular matrix

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is all of the material outside the cells and consists of ground substance and protein fibers.

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The ground substance

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is the watery (or gel-like or solid) background fluid in which cells and fibers are immersed or embedded. It fill spaces between cells & surrounds fibers.

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Ground substance contains

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interstitial fluid, proteoglycans and adhesion proteins. The ground substance and fibers are secreted by the cells.

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The three types of fibers in connective tissue are

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collagen fibers, reticular fibers and elastic fibers.

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Collagen fibers

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are long, straight, unbranched and are the most common type of fiber.

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Collagen fibers

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consist of a bundle of protein subunits wound together like rope. They are flexible but very strong when pulled from the end.

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Reticular fibers

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have same protein subunits as collagen fibers but arranged differently so that the fibers are thinner and form branching network. They provide support and strength; resist forces in many directions.

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Reticular fibers are

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found forming the stroma (supporting framework) of many soft organs (spleen, lymph nodes) and forming the basement membrane that attaches epithelium to connective tissue.

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Elastic fibers

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are composed of the protein elastin and are smaller in diameter than collagen fibers. They can stretch and return to original length and thus provide elasticity.

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The permanent cell population consists of

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fibroblasts, adipocytes, chondroblasts, osteoblasts and hematopoietic stem cells.

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Fibroblasts

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are the most abundant of the permanent cells and they are the only cells that are always present in CT proper.

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Fibroblasts does what?

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secrete the material that makes up viscous ground substance (hyaluronan (polysaccharide) + proteins = proteoglycan) and they secrete protein subunits that make up EC fibers.

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Fibroblasts

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are the immature cells (when they mature they are called fibrocytes).

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Adipocytes

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have large lipid droplets which squeeze the organelles to the periphery of the cell. The number of adipocytes varies from one type of CT to another and between individuals.

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Chondroblasts

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are immature cartilage cells (called chondrocytes when mature).

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Osteoblasts

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are immature bone cells (called osteocytes when mature).

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hematopoietic stem cells

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are immature blood cells (have a variety of names when mature).

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The accessory cell population consists

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of white blood cells, plasma cells, macrophages, mast cells and microphages. Macrophages, white blood cells, plasma cells and microphages function in defense. Mast cells store and secrete histamine (inflammatory response).

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Well, maybe this should say 5 major classes.

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...

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1) embryonic connective tissue (mesenchyme)

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...

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2) Connective tissue proper

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...

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3) Cartilage

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...

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4) Bone

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...

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5) Blood

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...

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The two classes of connective tissue proper are

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loose CT and dense CT.

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Loose connective tissue consists of three subclasses

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areolar, adipose and reticular CT.

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Dense connective tissue

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most of the volume of tissue is occupied by fibers and collagen fibers predominate.

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Dense CT consists of two sublcasses

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dense regular CT and dense irregular CT.

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Mesenchyme

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is embryonic connective tissue that gives rise to all other connective tissues.

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Mucous CT

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is a temporary tissue derived from mesenchyme that is similar to it. The best example is Wharton's jelly, which is supports the umbilical cord of the fetus.

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Loose connective tissue consists of three subclasses

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areolar, adipose and reticular CT.

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Areolar tissue

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may contain all the cells and fibers described for connective tissue proper. It has an open framework made up mostly of ground substance, which has a syrupy consistency.

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Areolar CT functions

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fills spaces between organs, cushions and supports epithelia, surrounds and supports blood vessels and nerves, stores lipids and provides route for diffusion (nutrients, drugs, gases, cells).

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Areolar CT located

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in the subcutaneous layer of skin, in the papillary (superficial) region of dermis, in mucous membranes, around blood vessels and nerves and around body organs.

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Adipose connective tissue

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contains specialized cells called adipocytes make up ,most of the volume of the tissue.

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Adipose tissue provides and functions how

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insulation, an energy reserve, support, protection and thermogenesis (brown fat) in infants.

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Adipose tissue located

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primarily in the subcutaneous layer of skin and surrounding the heart & kidneys. also found in yellow bone marrow of long bones, padding around joints, and behind eyeball in eye socket.

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Reticular connective tissue

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is characterized by having extensive reticular fibers running through it.

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Reticular connective tissue

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forms stroma of organs and binds together smooth muscle tissue cells.

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Reticular connective tissueis found

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in the stroma of the liver, spleen & lymph nodes and in the red bone marrow that gives

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Dense CT consists of two sublcasses

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dense regular CT and dense irregular CT.

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In dense regular connective tissue

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the collagen fibers arranged parallel to one another.

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Dense CT functions

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to provides strong attachment between structures (withstands force in one direction).

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Dense CT IS found

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in tendons (attaching muscle to bone), ligaments (attaching bone to bone), aponeuroses and elastic tissue.

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Dense irregular connective tissue

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has interwoven mesh of fibers with no consistent pattern. It functions to provide strength in many directions.

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Dense irregular connective tissue

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found in fasciae, the reticular layer of dermis, perichondrium, periosteum, joint capsules, dura mater (outer meninge), membrane capsules around various organs (kidneys, liver, testes, lymph nodes), heart valves

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Bone

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provides for rigid, inflexible support.

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Cartilage

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provides flexible support. Cartilage has a matrix that is a firm gel that contains chondroitin sulfates (polysaccharide derivative) which forms complexes with proteins in ground substance to form proteoglycans.

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Hyaline cartilage

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is the most abundant type of cartilage. The matrix contains loosely packed collagen fibers. It is tough but flexible. It functions to provide smooth surfaces for movements and joints, flexibility, support. It is found on the ends of long bones, anterior ends of ribs, nose, parts of larynx, trachea, bronchi & bronchial tubes and the embryonic skeleton.

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Elastic cartilage

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contains numerous elastic fibers which make it resilient and flexible. It provides flexible support and maintains shape. It is found in the epiglottis, external ear, auditory tubes

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Fibrocartilage

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has very little ground substance. The matrix is dominated by collagen fibers which are densely interwoven. It functions in support and fusion. It is located in the pubic symphysis, intervertebral discs and menisci of knee.

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Cartilage cells

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are called chondrocytes and are located inside hollow areas in the matrix that are called lacunae. The physical properties depend on type and abundance of EC fibers and proteoglycan components.

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Cartilage is

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avascular which means that nutrient and waste diffusion must occur through matrix. Cartilage is surrounded by= a perichondrium which is composed of an outer fibrous layer (dense Irreg CT) and inner cellular layer. The outer layer is for attachment of structures to the cartilage and the inner cellular layer produces new cells.

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Blood

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(vascular tissue) consists of plasma and formed elements (erythrocytes, leukocytes and platelets).

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Eryrthrocutes

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function to transport O2 and some CO2.

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Leukocytes

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function in phagocytosis& are involved in immune/allergic rxns.

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Platelets

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function in clotting. Blood is located within the heart and blood vessels

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Describe the structure of an epithelial membrane. List and define the three types of epithelial membranes (cutaneous, mucous and serous)

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Epithelial membranes consist of epithelial layer and underlying layer of CT connected to one another by a basement membrane.

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Synovial membranes

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lack a basement membrane, often have gaps between cells, and have primarily macrophages and fibroblasts as lining cells.

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mucous membranes

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(mucosae) are wet membranes that line body cavities that open directly to exterior(line all of dig, resp and repro systems and much of urinary system). The CT layer is called lamina propriaserous membranes =(serosae)are wet membranes that line body cavities not open to exterior & cover organs that lie within those cavities. They consist of thin layers of areolar CT covered by a layer of mesothelium (simple squamous). The epithelial layer secretes serous fluid.

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Transudate

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is the fluid formed on surface of serous membrane.

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The membrane is composed of 2 layers

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the outer parietal layer lines walls of cavity and the inner visceral covers & attaches to organs.

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Serous membranes

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are named according to location (pleura, pericardium and peritoneum).cutaneous membranes are dry membranes covering the external surface of body (skin). It consists of stratified squamous with underlying dense CT.

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The three types of muscle tissue are

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smooth,cardiac,skeletal

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smooth

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(surrounds organs and glands),

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cardiac

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(wall of heart) and

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skeletal

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(attached to bones).

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Describe the structure, function and location of nervous tissue and its 2 major cell types

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Nervous tissue is found in the nervous system (see objective # 2). It consists of neurons and supporting cells. The neurons conduct impulses and the supporting cells aid the neurons. We will discuss this in more detail in chapter 11.

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Describe the three stages of tissue repair (inflammation, organization and regeneration/fibrosis).

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Inflammation causes isolation of the damaged area and cleans up dangerous microorganisms. Damaged cells release chemicals that activate mast cells. Mast cells release histamine which cause increased blood flow and increased vessel permeability. This increases the oxygen, nutrients and phagocytes to the area and facilitates waste removal.

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Organization restores

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the blood supply to the damaged area. This occurs at the same time as inflammation. Blood clot is replaced by granulation tissue.

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Regeneration

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repairs or replaces the damaged tissues to restore normal function. New cells migrate into area. If instead of cells of the original tissue migrating into the area, fibrous connective tissue moves in, then there is the formation of scar tissue and this step would result in fibrosis.

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Atrophy

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decrease in size of organ or tissue

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Programmed cell death

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idea that the timing of the death of a cell is coded in the cells genes.

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Telomere clock

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the telomeres, which are the ends of chromosomes, may have a way of counting the number of times a chromosome is copied and then allow for its destruction after being copied a certain number of times.

Chapter 1-4 Anatomy and Physiology – Flashcards

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