CH 7 MIDTERM – Flashcards

Macionis defintion of deviance

Sociologist James Henslin defintion of deviance

What deviant actions or attitudes, whether negative or positive, have in common is some element of difference that causes us to think of another person as an "outsider"

The very existence of some categories of people can be troublesome to others.

James Henslin idea that deviance can involve more than action or choice.

Social control attempts by society to regulate people's thoughts and behavior Criminal justice system the organizations—police, courts, and prison officials—that respond to alleged violations of the law.

1. Deviance varies according to cultural norms. No thought or action is inherently deviant; it becomes deviant only in relation to particular norms. 2. People become deviant as others define them that way. Everyone violates cultural norms at one time or another. 3. How societies set norms and how they define rule breaking both involve social power. The law, declared Karl Marx, is the means by which powerful people protect their interests. A homeless person who stands on a street corner speaking out against the government risks arrest for disturbing the peace; a mayoral candidate during an election campaign who does exactly the same thing gets police protection.

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1. Deviance varies according to cultural norms. No thought or action is inherently deviant; it becomes deviant only in relation to particular norms. 2.*** People become deviant as others define them that way. Everyone violates cultural norms at one time or another. 3.*** How societies set norms and how they define rule breaking both involve social power. The law, declared Karl Marx, is the means by which powerful people protect their interests. A homeless person who stands on a street corner speaking out against the government risks arrest for disturbing the peace; a mayoral candidate during an election campaign who does exactly the same thing gets police protection.

1. Deviance affirms cultural values and norms. As moral creatures, people must prefer some attitudes and behaviors to others. 2. Responding to deviance clarifies moral boundaries. By defining some individuals as deviant, people draw a boundary between right and wrong. 3. Responding to deviance brings people together. People typically react to serious deviance with shared outrage. In doing so, Durkheim explained, they reaffirm the moral ties that bind them. 4. Deviance encourages social change. Deviant people push a society's moral boundaries, suggesting alternatives to the status quo and encouraging change. Today's deviance, declared Durkheim, can become tomorrow's morality

According to Merton, the strain between our culture's emphasis on wealth and the lack of opportunities to get rich may encourage some people, especially the poor, to engage in stealing, drug dealing, or other forms of street crime. Specifically, the extent and type of deviance people engage in depend on whether a society provides the means (such as schooling and job opportunities) to achieve cultural goals (such as financial success). Conformity-- lies in pursuing cultural goals through approved means. Innovation—using unconventional means (street crime) rather than conventional means (hard work at a "straight" job) to achieve a culturally approved goal (wealth). Ritualism--rigidly stick to the rules (the conventional means) anyway in order to at least feel "respectable." Retreatism----rejecting both cultural goals and conventional means so that a person in effect "drops out." Some alcoholics, drug addicts, and street people can be described as retreatists. Rebellion. Like retreatists, rebels such as radical "survivalists" reject both the cultural definition of success and the conventional means of achieving it, but they go one step further by forming a counterculture supporting alternatives to the existing social order.

Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin (1966) extended Merton's theory, proposing that crime results not simply from limited legitimate (legal) opportunity but also from readily accessible illegitimate (illegal) opportunity. Relative opportunity structure-----In short, deviance or conformity arises from the relative opportunity structure that frames a person's life.

Where the structure of opportunity favors criminal. But what happens when people are unable to find any opportunity, legal or illegal? Then deviance may take one of two forms. One is conflict subcultures, such as armed street gangs that engage in violence out of frustration and a desire for respect. Another possible outcome is the development of retreatist subcultures, in which deviants drop out and abuse alcohol or other drugs.

(1) trouble, arising from frequent conflict with teachers and police; (2) toughness, the value placed on physical size and strength, especially among males; (3) smartness, the ability to succeed on the streets, to outsmart or "con" others, and to avoid being similarly taken advantage of; (4) a need for excitement, the search for thrills or danger; (5) a belief in fate, a sense that people lack control over their own lives; (6) a desire for freedom, often expressed as anger toward authority figures.

To show that they can survive on the street, a young man displays "nerve," a willingness to stand up to any threat. Following this street code, which is also evident in much recent rap music, the young man believes that a violent death is better than being "dissed" (disrespected) by others. Some manage to escape the dangers, but the risk of ending up in jail—or worse—is very high for these young men, who have been pushed to the margins of our society.

However, there is evidence that a community does not always come together in reaction to crime; sometimes fear of crime causes people to withdraw from public life.

Merton's strain theory has been criticized for explaining some kinds of deviance (stealing, for example) better than others (such as crimes of passion or mental illness). Also, not everyone seeks success in the conventional terms of wealth, as strain theory suggests.

TRUE However, these theories fall short by assuming that everyone shares the same cultural standards for judging right and wrong. In addition, if we define crime to include not only burglary and auto theft but also fraud and other crimes carried out by corporate executives and Wall Street tycoons, then more high-income people will be counted as criminals.

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labeling theory---the idea that deviance and conformity result not so much from what people do as from how others respond to those actions. Labeling theory stresses the relativity of deviance, meaning that people may define the same behavior in any number of ways. Differential association theory---to indicate that we learn to deviate or to conform to society's norms mostly by rhe different groups we associate with. Control theory---which states that social control depends on people anticipating the consequences of their behavior.

Labeling theory---the idea that deviance and conformity result not so much from what people do as from how others respond to those actions. Labeling theory stresses the relativity of deviance, meaning that people may define the same behavior in any number of ways. Primary deviance---proveke slight reaction from others and have little effect on a person's self-concept. Secondary deviance---when a person begins to employ deviant behavior as a means of defense, attack, or adjustment to the problem created by societal reaction. (change of self concept)

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Retrospective labeling, interpreting someone's past in light of some present deviance (Scheff, 1984). For example, after discovering that a priest has sexually molested a child, others rethink his past, perhaps musing, "He always did want to be around young children." Retrospective labeling, which distorts a person's biography by being highly selective, typically deepens a deviant identity. Projective labeling of a stigmatized person, using the person's deviant identity to predict future actions. Regarding the priest, people might say, "He's going to keep at it until he gets caught." The more people in someone's social world think such things, the more these definitions affect the individual's self-concept, increasing the chance that they will come true.

Medicalization of deviance, the transformation of moral and legal deviance into a medical condition. Medicalization amounts to swapping one set of labels for another. In moral terms, we evaluate people or their behavior as "bad" or "good." However, the scientific objectivity of medicine passes no moral judgment, instead using clinical diagnoses such as "sick" or "well."

Denial of Responsibility---Some boys said, ''I'm not responsible for what happened because ... Denial of Injury---They might acknowledge that what they did was illegal, but claim that they were "just having a liede fun." Denial of a Victim--In short, even if the boys did accept responsibility and admit that someone had gotten hurt, they protected their self concept by claiming that the people "deserved what they got. Condemnation of the Condemners ---Another technique the boys used was to deny chat others had the right to judge them. Appeal to Higher Loyalties A final technique the boys used to justify antisocial activities was to consider loyalty to the gcig, more important than following the norms of society.

Some teenagers, for example, make certain by their clothing, choice of music, and hairstyles that no one misses their rejection of adult norms. Their status among fellow members of a subculture, within which they are almost obsessive conformists, is vastly more important than any status outside it. He concluded chat outlaw bikers see the world as "hostile, weak, and effeminate." They pride themselves on looking "dirty, mean, and generally undesirable" and take pleasure in provoking shocked reactions to their appearance. Holding the conventional world in contempt, they also pride themselves on getting into trouble, laughing at death, and treating women as lesser beings whose primary value is to provide them with servicesespecially sex. Outlaw bikers also regard themselves as losers, a factor chat becomes woven into their unusual embrace of deviance.

What we learn influences us toward or away from deviance. Sutherland's theory is actually more complicated than this, buc he basically said chat deviance is learned

They have found that ddinquents are more likely to come from families that get in trouble with the law. In short, families that are involved in crime tend to set their children on a lawbreaking path.

Members of the Mafia also intertwine ideas of manliness with violence. For them, to kill is a measure of their manhood. Not all killings are accorded the same respect, however, for "the more awesome and potent the victim, the more worthy and meritorious the kiUer" (Arlacchi 1980). Some killings are done to enforce norms. A member of th.e Mafia who gives information to the police, for example, has violated omertd (the Mafia's vow of secrecy). Such an offense can never be tolerated, for it threatens the very existence of the group. This example further illustrates just how relative deviance is. Although killing is deviant to mainstream society, for members of the Mafia, not to kill after certain rules are broken-such as when someone "squeals" to the cops-is the deviant act.

Inner controls--include our internalized morality-conscience, religious principles, ideas of right and wrong. Inner controls also include fears of punishment, feelings of integrity, and the desire to be a "good" person. Outer controls consist of people-such as family, friends, and the police-who influence us not to deviate.

Attachments (feeling affection and respect for people who conform to society's norms). Commitments (having a stake in society that you don't want to risk, such as a respected place in your family, a good standing at college, a good job). Involvements (purring time and energy into approved activities). Belief (believing that certain actions are morally wrong). This theory can be summarized as self control, says sociologist Travis Hirschi. The key to learning high self-control is socialization, especially in childhood. Parents help their children develop self-control by supervising them and punishing their deviant acts

First, because it takes a highly relative view of deviance, labeling theory ignores the fact that some kinds of behavior—such as murder—are condemned just about everywhere. Therefore, labeling theory is most usefully applied to less serious issues, such as sexual promiscuity or mental illness. Second, research on the consequences of deviant labeling does not clearly show whether deviant labeling produces further deviance or discourages it (Smith & Gartin, 1989; Sherman & Smith, 1992). Third, not everyone resists being labeled deviant; some people actively seek it out (Vold & Bernard, 1986). For example, people take part in civil disobedience and willingly subject themselves to arrest in order to call attention to social injustice.

Alexander Liazos (1972) points out that the people we tend to define as deviants—the ones we dismiss as "nuts" and "sluts"—are typically not as bad or harmful as they are powerless. First, all norms—especially the laws of any society— generally reflect the interests of the rich and powerful. Second, even if their behavior is called into question, the powerful have the resources to resist deviant labels. The majority of the executives involved in recent corporate scandals have yet to be arrested; only a few have gone to jail. Third, the widespread belief that norms and laws are natural and good masks their political character. For this reason, although we may condemn the unequal application of the law, we give little thought to whether the laws themselves are really fair or not.

First, because capitalism is based on private control of wealth, people who threaten the property of others—especially the poor who steal from the rich—are prime candidates for being labeled deviant. Second, because capitalism depends on productive labor, people who cannot or will not work risk being labeled deviant. Third, capitalism depends on respect for authority figures, causing people who resist authority to be labeled deviant. Fourth, anyone who directly challenges the capitalist status quo is likely to be defined as deviant.

For example, winning athletes enjoy celebrity status because they express the values of individual achievement and competition, both vital to capitalism.

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Organized crime-- a business supplying illegal goods or services. The Italian Mafia is a well-known example of organized crime. In most cases, however, organized crime involves the sale of illegal goods and services—often sex, drugs, and gambling—to willing buyers. Today, organized crime involves a wide range of activities, from selling illegal drugs to prostitution to credit card fraud to selling false identification papers to illegal immigrants.

Hate crime is a criminal act against a person or a person's property by an offender motivated by racial or other bias. People who contend with multiple stigmas, such as gay men of color, are especially likely to be victims.

Robert Merton's strain theory, for example, defines cultural goals in terms of financial success. Traditionally, at least, this goal has had more to do with the lives of men because women have been taught to define success in terms of relationships, particularly marriage and motherhood (Leonard, 1982). A more woman-focused theory might recognize the "strain" that results from the cultural ideal of equality clashing with the reality of gender-based inequality. According to labeling theory, gender influences how we define deviance because people commonly use different standards to judge the behavior of females and males. Further, because society puts men in positions of power over women, men often escape direct responsibility for actions that victimize women. In the past, at least, men who sexually harassed or assaulted women were labeled only mildly deviant and sometimes escaped punishment entirely. By contrast, women who are victimized may have to convince others—even members of a jury—that they were not to blame for their own sexual harassment or assault. Research confirms an important truth: Whether people define a situation as deviance—and, if so, who the deviant is—depends on the sex of both the audience and the actors (King & Clayson, 1988). Finally, despite its focus on social inequality, much social-conflict analysis does not address the issue of gender.

First, a Marxist approach implies that laws and other cultural norms are created directly by the rich and powerful. At the very least, this is an oversimplification, as laws also protect workers, consumers, and the environment, sometimes opposing the interests of corporations and the rich. Second, social-conflict analysis argues that criminality springs up only to the extent that a society treats its members unequally. However, as Durkheim noted, deviance exists in all societies, whatever their economic system and their degree of inequality. Finally, keep in mind that, while class, race, and gender still affect the process of defining deviance, our society now treats all categories of people in a more equal manner than was true a century ago.

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Victimless crimes, violations of law in which there are no obvious victims. Also called crimes without complaint. Drug use--Prostitution--Gambling

Always read crime statistics with caution, because they include only crimes known to the police.

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Ages of fifteen and twenty four

It may be that some law enforcement officials are reluctant to define women as criminals. In fact, all over the world, the greatest gender differences in crime rates occur in societies that most severely limit the opportunities of women.

Although crime—especially violent crime—is a serious problem in the poorest inner-city communities, most of these crimes are committed by a few repeat offenders. The majority of the people who live in poor communities have no criminal record at all. The connection between social standing and criminality also depends on the type of crime. If we expand our definition of crime beyond street offenses to include whitecollar crime and corporate crime, the "common criminal" suddenly looks much more affluent and may live in a $100 million home.

First, race in the United States closely relates to social standing, which, as already explained, affects the likelihood of engaging in street crimes. Many poor people living in the midst of wealth come to perceive society as unjust and are therefore more likely to turn to crime to get their share. Second, black and white family patterns differ: 71.5 percent of non-Hispanic black children (compared to 53.2 percent of Hispanic children and 29.3 percent of non-Hispanic white children) are born to single mothers. Single parenting carries two risks: Children receive less supervision and are at greater risk of living in poverty. With about 38 percent of African American children growing up poor (compared to about 11 percent of non-Hispanic white children), no one should be surprised at the proportionately higher crime rates for African Americans. Third, prejudice prompts white police to arrest black people more readily and leads citizens to report African Americans more willingly, so people of color are overly criminalized. Fourth, remember that the official crime index does not include arrests for offenses ranging from drunk driving to white-collar violations. This omission contributes to the view of the typical criminal as a person of color.

Asian Americans. Asian American culture emphasizes family solidarity and discipline, both of which keep criminality down.

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Elliott Currie (1985) suggests that crime stems from our culture's emphasis on individual economic success, frequently at the expense of strong families and neighborhoods. The United States also has extraordinary cultural diversity—a result of centuries of immigration—that can lead to conflict. In addition, economic inequality is higher in this country than in most other high-income nations. Thus our society's relatively weak social fabric, combined with considerable frustration among the poor, increases the level of criminal behavior. Another factor contributing to violence in the United States is extensive private ownership of guns.

The global trend is toward abolishing the death penalty:

Plea bargaining, a legal negotiation in which a prosecutor reduces a charge in exchange for a defendant's guilty plea. Plea bargaining is widespread because it spares the system the time and expense of trials..

Retribution The oldest justification for punishment is to satisfy people's need for retribution, an act of moral vengeance by which society makes the offender suffer as much as the suffering caused by the crime. Deterrence A second justification for punishment is deterrence, the attempt to discourage criminality through the use of punishment. Rehabilitation The third justification for punishment is rehabilitation, a program for reforming the offender to prevent later offenses. Societal Protection A final justification for punishment is societal protection, rendering an offender incapable of further offenses temporarily through imprisonment or permanently by execution.

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This rise in the prison population reflects tougher public attitudes toward crime and punishing offenders and stiffer sentences handed down by courts. The trend also reflects an increasing number of drug-related arrests—half of all federal inmates are serving time for drug offenses.

Criminal recidivism, later offenses by people previously convicted of crimes. About threefourths of prisoners in state penitentiaries have been jailed before, and about two-thirds of people released from prison are arrested again within three years.

Sutherland's theory of differential association, Locking up criminals together for years probably strengthens criminal attitudes and skills. Imprisonment also stigmatizes prisoners, making it harder for them to find legitimate employment later on (Pager, 2003). Finally, prison breaks the social ties inmates may have in the outside world, which, following Hirschi's control theory, makes inmates more likely to commit new crimes upon release.

Opponents of capital punishment point to research suggesting that the death penalty has limited value as a crime deterrent. Countries such as Canada, where the death penalty has been abolished, have not seen a rise in the number of murders. Critics also point out that the United States is the only Western, high-income nation that routinely executes offenders.

One reason is that because the crime rate has come down in recent years, the public now has less fear of crime and is less interested in applying the most severe punishment. Second reason is public concern that the death penalty may be applied unjustly. The analysis of DNA evidence—a recent advance—from old crime scenes has shown that many people were wrongly convicted of a crime. Third reason for the decline in the use of the death penalty is that more states now permit judges and juries to sentence serious offenders to life in prison without the possibility of parole. Fourth and finally, many states now shy away from capital punishment because of the high cost of prosecuting capital cases.

(1) probation----One form of community-based corrections is probation, a policy permitting a convicted offender to remain in the community under conditions imposed by a court, including regular supervision. (2) shock probation----A related strategy is shock probation, a policy by which a judge orders a convicted offender to prison for a short time but then suspends the remainder of the sentence in favor of probation. (3) parole----Parole is a policy of releasing inmates from prison to serve the remainder of their sentences in the local community under the supervision of a parole officer.

(1) more police hired and more effective policing methods being used, especially more community policing and the rise of more sophisticated computer capabilities and programs like CompStat (2) decreasing lead exposure (in the 1990s) (3) declining alcohol consumption (4) decline of the crack cocaine epidemic (in the 1990s) (5) reduction in the youth population (6) more incarceration (7) changes in the economy

A prison-reform report argues against incarcerating first-time offenders because in prison they are likely to be exposed to people who will teach them sophisticated methods of committing crimes in addition to being exposed to attitudes that are supportive of crime as a way of life. This argument supports A. strain theory B. conflict theory C. differential association theory D. control theory E. opportunity theory

Merton's strain theory explains deviance in terms of a society's cultural goals and the means available to achieve them.

Based on Karl Marx's ideas, social-conflict theory holds that laws and other norms operate to protect the interests of powerful members of any society. In a capitalist society, law operates to support the capitalist economy.

Hirschi's control theory states that imagining the possible consequences of deviance often discourages such behavior. People who are well integrated into society are less likely to engage in deviant behavior.

Learning any behavioral pattern, whether conventional or deviant, is a process that takes place in groups. According to Edwin Sutherland (1940), a person's tendency toward conformity or deviance depends on the amount of contact with others who encourage or reject conventional behavior.