Ch.18: Nomadic Empires and Eurasian Integration – Flashcards

a goldsmith who in 1230s went to Budapest from paris and was captured by mongol warriors campaigning in Hungary. 1242 took him to Karakorum. Slave but produced items for the mongol court. by no means only European at the mongol court. Flemish Missionary William of Rubruk visited Karakorum in 1254.

Xiongnu confederation dominated central Asia and threat to Han Dynasty in China 3rd-1st cent BCE. 2cnd-3rd CE huns and nomads from central asia invasions helped bring down western Roman empire and white huns destroyed Gupta state in India. Turkish in central asia 6-9th ce, Uighur turks seized capitals of Tang in 7th.

Turkish people migrated to Persia, Anatolia, and India-established new states. 13th-14th cents mongols most powerful in central asian steppes and turned on China, Persia, Russia, and eastern Europe. 14th-17th cents Turkish on campaigns brought most of India, much of Central Asia, all of Anatolia, and a good portion of eastern Europe under its domination. 11th-15th cents imperial campaigns of Turkish and Mongol peoples forged closer links than ever before between the Eurasian lands.

clans and tribes that sometimes fought biterrally. emerged when the Xiongnu fell in 1st and 2cnd cents ce. had related langs and were all nomads. dominated central asian steppes, Persia, Anatolia, India.

adapted to ecological conditions of arid lands. Grasses and shrubs grow out of central Asian steppe lands and no bodies of water for large scale irrigation. nomads herded grazing animals-sheep horses, cattle goats camels. followed migratory cycles that took accounts of the seasons and local climatic conditions. lived off meat, milk, and hides of their animals. used animal bones for tools and animal dung as fuel for their fires. shoes and clothes out of wool and skins. wool was source of felt which they used to make large tents-yurts. fermented mare's milk to make kumiss. small scale cultivation when they found water source but only supplements to animal products. limited amounts of pottery, leather goods, iron weapons, and tools.

sought to trade with settled peoples. small scale as nomads sought agricultural products and manufactured goods to satisfy their immediate needs. organized and led camel caravans across central Asia, linked China to medi Basin.

nobles and commoners. nobles did little governing however, during times of war had absolute authority. leaders passed noble status along to their heirs but could lose status. Commoners could win recognition as nobles. They could arrange alliances and displace established leader.

revolved around shamans-relgious specialists who possessed supernatural powers, communicated with the gods and nature spirits, invoked divine aid on behalf of their communities and informed their companions of their gods will. 6th cent many turkish had converted to Buddhism, Nestorian christianity, or manichaeism. Developed a written script.

10th cent turks living near the abbasid empire turned toward islam. When began to migrate into settled societies, helped spread Islam to new lands mainly Anatolia and Northern India.

expansion when nomadic leaders organized vast confederations of peoples all subject to a khan (ruler). ruled through the leaders of allied tribes. outstanding cavalry forces. arrows and units of warriors with coordinated movements. several groups of turkish nomads began in 10th cent to seize the wealth of settled societies and build imperial states in the regions surrounding central Asia.

mid 8th to mid 10th turkish people lived mostly on the borders of the Abbasid realm which offered abundant opportunities for trade. Mid to late 10th large numbers of saljuq turks served in abbasid armies and lived in abbasid realm itself. 1055 the caliph recognized the saljuq leader Tughril Beg as sultan (chieftain). consolidated hold on baghdad and then extended realm to syria, palestine, etc.

turkish people began migrating into Anatolia in early 11th cent. 1071 Saljuq forces inflicted a devastating defeat on the byzantine army at Manzikert in eastern Anatolia and took Byzantine emperor captive. Then saljuqs and other Turkish entered anatolia at will. Peasants saw turkish as liberators. Turkish groups displaced Byzantine authorities and set up own political and social institutions. Levied taxes on Byzantine church restricted its activities and sometimes confiscated church property. the welcomed converts to islam. by 1453, Byzantine and Christian Anatolia had become largely a turkish and Islamic land.

Mahmud of Ghazni led the turksih Ghaznavids of Afghanistan in raids on northern India. 11th cent, plunder then permanent rule. First authority over Punjab and then over Gujarat and Bengal. 13th century the turkish sultanate of Delhi claimed authority over all of northern India. constant challenges from neighboring hindu princes and periodically had to defend northern frontiers from new turkish or mongol invaders.

Mahmud of Ghazni zealous foe of Buddhism and Hinduism. and turkish invaders encouraged conversion to Islam.

lived on high steppe lands of eastern central Asia. deep loyalty to kin groups. allied with turkish people but rarely played leading role in the organization of states before 13th. early 13th Chinggis Khan forged mongol tribes into powerful alliance that built the largest empire the world has ever seen.

the unifier of the mongols was Temujin born 1167. late 12th century made an alliance with a prominent mongol clan leader. mastered the art of steppe diplomacy (displays of personal courage in battle, combined with an intense loyalty to allies as well as willingness to betray allies to improve ones position and the ability to entice previously unaffiliated tribes into cooperative relationships.). brought all mongol tribes into a single confederation, 1206 assembly of mongol leaders recognized him as Chinggis Khan (universal ruler).

Mistrusted the mongol tribal organization. Broke up tribes and forced men of fighting age to join new military units with no tribal affiliation. Chose high military and political officials because of their talents and loyalty to him. Capital at Karakorum

the army!100,000 to 125,000 mongols. outstanding equestrian skill. bows were stiff could fire arrows to 200 meters. traveled on horses to surprise enemies. understood psychological dimensions of warfare. if resisted, slaughtered whole populations. Khan attacked the turkish peoples in Tibet, northern China, Persia, and Central Asia

extended mongol rule to northern China, dominated by the Jurchen since 1127 CE. Conquest began in 1211 when mongols invaded Jurchen realm. 1215 mongols had captured Jurchen capital and become Khanbaliq (city of the Khan) which become Mongol capital in China. fighting continued until 1234 but by 1220 mongals had control over northern China.

led another force to Afghanistan and Persia, ruled at the time by Khwarazm Shah. 1218 Khan sought relations with him but he murdered mongol envoys and merchants. They then took control of the Shah's realm and wreaked havoc on it. Death in 1227 was a conqueror not an administrator. Ruled mongols through control of the army but did not establish a central gov for the lands he conquered. Assigned mongol overlords.

heirs divided vast realm into four regional empires. the great Khans ruled China. Descendents of Chaghatai ruled the Khanate of Chaghatai in central Asia. Persia ruled by the Ilkhans and Khans of the Golden Horde dominated Russia.

Consolidation of China came under his reign. Ruthless attacks on enemies but took interest in cultural matters. promoted buddhism and supported Daoists, Muslims, and Christians. Marco Polo lived at his court. named khan in 1260, 1264-1294 presided over mongol realm at its height. From base at Khanbaliq relentlessly attacked the song dynasty in southern China. Hangzhou fell to mongol forces in 1276 in 1279 proclaimed himself emperor and established the Yuan dynasty which ruled until 1368. 1270s and 1280s invasions of Vietnam, Cambodia, and Burma. naval expedition against Java. 1274 and 1281 attempted seaborne invasions of Japan. typhoons thwarted both.

Overan Russia between 1237 and 1241 and expeditions into Poland, Hungary, and eastern Germany 1241-1242. Did not occupy Russia but extracted Tribute. Mid 16th cent Russian princes had taken it back but continued to rule crimea until 18th cent.

Hulegu toppled the Abbassid Empire and established Mongol Ilkhanate of Persia. 1258 captured Baghdad. into syria but muslim forces from Egypt expelled them.

they made important concessions to local interests. persians served as ministers, provincial governors, and state officials at lower levels. Early mongol rulers of persia mainly did native shamanism but tolerated all religions. and ended privileges given muslims during the Abassid caliphate. 1295 Ilkhan Ghazan converted to islam and most mongols in Persian followed. followed by large scale massacre of christinas and jews.

Mongols scorned chinese subjects as mere cultivators. outlawed mixing of chinese and Mongols. Placed foreign administrators in charge of China. mongols resisted assimilation to Chinese cultural traditions. Dismantled confucian stuff. Tolerated all cultural and religious traditions.

mongols mostly continued with their native shamanist cults although many ruling elite became enchanted with the Lamaist school of Buddhism in tibet. magic and supernatural powers, recognized mongols as legitimate rulers recognized mongol Khans as incarnations of Buddha.

brought tremendous destruction to lands throughout the eurasian land mass. Mongols encouraged travel and communication over long distances. courier network. mongols worked to secure trade routes and safety of merchants. long distance travel and trade became much less riskier. China and western Europe became directly linked.

diplomatic communications was essential to the mongols. Throughout the mongol era, the great khans in china, the Ilkhans ins persia, and other khans maintained close communications by means of diplomatic envoys. Also had diplomatic dealings with Korea, Vietnam, India, Western Europe etc.

Eurasian routes during the mongol era served as highways for missionaries as well as merchants and diplomats. sufi missionaries popularized islam among turkish. Nestorian christians to china to serve as administrators for mongol rulers there. Roman catholics mounted missionary campaigns in China.

resettled peoples in new lands. took talent from their allies and the people they conquered. Most important of mongol allies was the Uighur turks who lived mostly in oasis cities along the silk roads. Arab and persian muslims administered mongol affairs from their home lands. sent conquered people with talent to karakorum 1230s began to census lands they conquered.

Persia, excessive spending strained treasury and exploitation of peasantry led to reduced revenues. 1290s ilkhan introduced paper money and ordered subjects to accept it as payment for all debts. didn't work. Decline after death of Ilkhan Ghazan in 1304. 1335 Last mongol ruler died without heir. collapsed. Gov in Persia local till turkish in 14th.

population lost confidence in paper money. china attracted attention of ambitious warriors. 1320s power struggles, imperial assassinations, civil war.

expedited the spread of bubonic plague. 1330s plague in southwestern china-china and central asia-1340s southwest asia and europe (black death). depopulation and labor shortages weakened mongol regime in china. 1340s rebellions in southern china. 1368 rebels captured Khanbaliq, back to the steppes.

the khanate of Chaghatai in central asia. Mongols threat to northwestern border of China until 18th cent. Khanate of Golden Horde continued to dominate Caucasus and steppe lands north of Black sea and Caspian sea till mid 16 when a resurgent russian state brought them down. Mongols in Russia continued to threaten until 8th cent.

ming dynasty filled vacuum in China. Turkish conqueror timur moved on persia. limp-tamerlane. Born in 1336 near Samarkand, took Chinggis Khan as model. 1360s eliminated rivals and became leader of own tribe. 1370 authority throughout Khanate of Chaghatai, capital at Samarkand, conquests of region between persian and afghanistan. Attacked Golden Horde in Caucas region and russia, mid 1390s had weakened it. Invaded India and subjected Delhi to a ferocious attack. Campaigned along Ganges, never incorporated India. Southwest Asia and Anatolia. 1404 prepping for invasion of China. Died 1405. Ruled through tribal leaders who were his allies. Overlords in conquered territories, empire divided into four main regions. 16th cent mughals, safavid, and ottoman.

Osman late 13th early 14th carved small state in northwestern anatolia. 1299 declared independence from saljuq sultan. followers were osmanlis or ottomans. 1350s established foothold across the Dardanelles at Gallipolli in Balkan Peninsula. 1380s most powerful in Balkan peninsula. 1402 tamerlane stewed Ottomans. 1440s Ottomans had recovered. 1453 Sultan Mehmed II captured constantiniople-Istanbul. 1480 controlled all greece and balkan region.