question

I olfactory

answer

sense of smell

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II optic

answer

sense of vision

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III oculomotor

answer

moves the eye and upper eyelid; changes the shape of the iris and lens

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IV trochlear

answer

moves the eye

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V trigeminal

answer

moves the eye and lower eyelid; moves the scalp, face, lips, and tongue; sensation in all these areas

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VI abducens

answer

moves the eye

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VII facial

answer

moves the face and scalp; sense of taste; controls the salivary and lacrimal glands

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VIII auditory

answer

sense of hearing; sense of balance (inner ear)

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IX glossopharyngeal

answer

swallowing; controls the salivary glands; sensation in mouth

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X vagus

answer

heart beating; breathing (diaphagm); peristalsis in the Gl tract; sensation in the throat and ears; sensation in the internal organs

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XI accessory

answer

moves the vocal cords; moves the neck and upper back

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XII hypoglossal

answer

moves the tongue

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astrocyte

answer

Large cell with radiating branches that support nearby neurons and connect them to capillaries. Astrocytes form the blood-brain barrier that keeps certain substances in the blood from getting to the brain.

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ependymal cell

answer

Cell that lines the ventricles of the brain and the spinal canal and forms cerebrospinal fluid.

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microglia

answer

Cell that can move anywhere in the central nervous system. It engulfs and destroys dead tissue and pathogens (bacteria, viruses, and so forth). Microglia are the smallest of all the neuroglia.

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oligodendroglia

answer

Cell that forms myelin that covers each axon (a part of the neuron) in the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord).

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Schwann cell

answer

Cell that forms myelin that covers each axon in the peripheral nervous system (cranial nerves and spinal nerves).

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acetylcholine

answer

In the synapse between a neuron and a voluntary skeletal muscle. It is released by the somatic nervous system.

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dopamine

answer

In the synapse between neurons in the limbic system and hypothalamus.

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endorphins

answer

In the synapse between neurons in the hypothalamus, thalamus, and brainstem. Endorphins are the body's own natural pain relievers.

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epinephrine

answer

In the synapse between a neuron and the heart, involuntary smooth muscles, or the adrenal gland. It is released by the sympathetic nervous system during stress or danger.

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norepinephrine

answer

In the synapse between a neuron and the heart, involuntary smooth muscles, or a gland. It is released by the parasympathetic nervous system during sleep and light activity.

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serotonin

answer

In the synapse between neurons in the limbic system, hypothalamus, cerebellum, and spinal cord.

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abducens nerve

answer

Cranial nerve VI. Movement of the eyeball.

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accessory nerve

answer

Cranial nerve XI. Movement of the vocal cords and muscles of the neck and upper back. Two of its nerve branches also assist the vagus nerve.

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acetylcholine

answer

Neurotransmitter between neurons in the brain and the spinal cord, also between a neuron and a voluntary skeletal muscle

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afferent nerves

answer

Nerves that carry sensory nerve impulses to the brain or to the spinal cord from the body

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arachnoid

answer

Thin, middle layer of the meninges

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astrocyte

answer

Star-shaped cell that provides structural support for neurons, connects them to capillaries, and forms the blood-brain barrier

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auditory nerve

answer

Cranial nerve VIII. Sense of hearing and maintains the balance. Also known as the vestibulocochlear nerve

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auditory cortex

answer

Area in the temporal lobe of the cerebrum that receives and analyzes nerve impulses from the ears

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autonomic nervous system

answer

Division of the nervous system that carries nerve impulses to the heart, involuntary smooth muscles, and glands. It includes the parasympathetic nervous system and the sympathetic nervous system.

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axon

answer

Part of the neuron that is a single, elongated branch at the opposite end from the dendrites. It conducts the electrical impulse and releases neurotransmitters into the synapse. Axons are covered by an insulating layer of myelin.

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brain

answer

Largest organ of the nervous system. It is part of the central nervous system and is located in the cranial cavity.

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brainstem

answer

Most inferior part of the brain that joins with the spinal cord. It is composed of the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata.

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cauda equina

answer

Group of nerve roots that begin where the spinal cord ends and continue inferiorly within the spinal cavity. They look like the tail of a horse.

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cell body

answer

Part of the neuron that contains the nucleus and produces neurotransmitters

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central nervous system

answer

Division of the nervous system that includes the brain and the spinal cord

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cerebellum

answer

Small, rounded structure that is the most posterior part of the brain. It monitors muscle tone and position and coordinates new muscle movements.

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cerebral cortex

answer

The outermost surface of the cerebrum and cerebellum. It consists of gray matter.

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cerebrospinal fluid

answer

Clear, colorless fluid that circulates through the subarachnoid space, around the brain, through the ventricles, and the spinal cavity. It cushions and protects the brain and contains glucose and other nutrients. It is produced by the ependymal cells that line the ventricles and spinal canal.

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cerebrum

answer

The largest and most visible part of the brain. Its surface contains gyri and sulci and it is divided into two hemispheres.

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corpus callosum

answer

Thick white band of nerves that connects the two hemispheres of the cerebrum and allows them to communicate and coordinate their activities

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cranial cavity

answer

Hollow cavity inside the cranium that contains the brain and the origins of the cranial nerves

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cranial nerves (1 through XII)

answer

Twelve pairs of nerves that originate in the brain. They carry sensory nerve impulses to the brain and motor nerve impulses from the brain.

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cranium

answer

Rounded dome of bone at the top of the skull

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dendrite

answer

Multiple branches at the beginning of a neuron that receive a neurotransmitter and convert it to an electrical impulse

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dopamine

answer

Neurotransmitter between neurons in the limbic system or hypothalamus

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dorsal nerve roots

answer

Group of spinal nerve roots that enter the posterior (dorsal) part of the spinal cord and carry sensory nerve impulses from the body to the spinal cord

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dura mater

answer

Tough, outermost layer of the meninges. The dura mater lies just beneath the bones of the cranium and within the foramen of each vertebra.

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efferent nerves

answer

Nerves that carry motor nerve impulses from the brain or from the spinal cord to the body

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endorphins

answer

Neurotransmitter between neurons in the hypothalamus, thalamus, or brainstem. Endorphins are the body's own natural pain relievers.

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ependymal cells

answer

Specialized cells that line the walls of the ventricles and spinal canal and produce cerebrospinal fluid

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epidural space

answer

Area between the dura mater and the vertebral body

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epinephrine

answer

Neurotransmitter for the sympathetic nervous system

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facial nerve

answer

Cranial nerve VII. Sense of taste. Control of salivary and lacrimal glands. Movement of face and scalp muscles.

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fissure

answer

Deep division that runs in an anterior-to-posterior direction through the cerebrum and divides it into right and left hemispheres

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frontal lobe

answer

Lobe of the cerebrum that predicts future events and consequences. Exerts conscious control over the skeletal muscles. Contains the gustatory cortex for the sense of taste.

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glossopharyngeal nerve

answer

Cranial nerve IX. Sensation in the mouth. Movement of the throat muscles for swallowing. Controls the salivary glands.

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gray matter

answer

Areas of gray tissue in the brain and spinal cord that are composed of cell bodies and dendrites

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gustatory cortex

answer

Area in the frontal lobe of the cerebrum that receives and analyzes sensory nerve impulses from the tongue and taste receptors

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gyrus

answer

One of many large elevated folds of brain tissue on the surface of the cerebrum with smaller folds on the cerebellum. In between each gyrus is a sulcus (groove). Plural: gyri.

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hemisphere

answer

One half of the cerebrum. The right hemisphere recognizes patterns and three-dimensional structures (including faces) and the emotions of words. The left hemisphere deals with mathematical and logical reasoning, analysis, and interpreting sights, sounds, and sensations. The left hemisphere is active in reading, writing, and speaking.

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hypoglossal nerve

answer

Cranial nerve XII. Movement of the tongue.

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hypothalamus

answer

Area in the center of the brain just below the thalamus that coordinates the activities of the pons and medulla oblongata. It also controls heart rate, blood pressure, respiratory rate, body temperature, sensations of hunger and thirst, and the circadian rhythm. It also produces hormones as part of the endocrine system.

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lobe

answer

Large area of the cerebrum. Each lobe is named for the bone of the cranium that is next to it: frontal lobe, parietal lobe, temporal lobe, and occipital lobe.

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medulla oblongata

answer

Most inferior part of the brainstem that joins to the spinal cord. It relays nerve impulses from the cerebrum to the cerebellum. It contains the respiratory center. Cranial nerves IX through XII originate there.

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meninges

answer

Three separate membranes that envelope and protect the entire brain and spinal cord. The meninges include the dura mater, arachnoid, and pia mater

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microglia

answer

Cells that move, engulf, and destroy pathogens anywhere in the central nervous system

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myelin

answer

Fatty sheath around the axon of a neuron. It acts as an insulator to keep the electrical impulse intact. Myelin around axons of larger neurons in the brain and spinal cord is produced by oligodendroglia. Myelin around axons of the larger cranial and spinal nerves is produced by the Schwann cells. An axon with myelin is said to be myelinated.

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neuroglia

answer

Cells that hold neurons in place and perform specialized tasks. Includes astrocytes, ependymal cells, microglia, oligodendrogiia, and Schwann cells.

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nerve

answer

A bundle of individual neurons

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nervous system

answer

Body system that consists of the brain, cranial nerves, spinal cord, spinal nerves and other structures. Its purpose is to receive nerve impulses from the body and send nerve impulses to the body. Anatomically, it consists of the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. Physiologically, it consists of the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system. Also known as the neuromuscular system.

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neuron

answer

An individual nerve cell. The functional part of the nervous system.

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neurotransmitter

answer

Chemical messenger that travels across the synapse between neurons

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norepinephrine

answer

Neurotransmitter for the parasympathetic nervous system

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nucleus

answer

Structure in the cell body of a neuron that directs cellular activities like synthesizing neurotransmitters

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occipital lobe

answer

Lobe of the cerebrum that receives and analyzes sensory information from the eyes. Contains the visual cortex for the sense of sight.

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oculomotor nerve

answer

Cranial nerve III. Movement of the eyeball, upper eyelid, pupil, and lens

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oligodendrogiia

answer

Cell that forms the myelin sheath around axons of larger neurons in the brain and spinal cord

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olfactory cortex

answer

Area in the temporal lobe of the cerebrum that receives and analyzes nerve impulses from the nose

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olfactory nerve

answer

Cranial nerve 1. Sense of smell.

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optic nerve

answer

Cranial nerve II. Sense of vision.

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parenchyma

answer

All the neurons in the nervous system. The functional units (as opposed to the structural components) of any body system.

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parasympathetic nervous system

answer

Division of the autonomic nervous system that uses the neurotransmitter norepinephrine and carries nerve impulses to the heart, involuntary smooth muscles, and glands while the body is at rest

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parietal lobe

answer

Lobe of the cerebrum that receives and analyzes sensory information about temperature, touch, pressure, vibration, and pain from the skin and internal organs

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peripheral nervous system

answer

Division of the nervous system that includes the cranial nerves and the spinal nerves

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pia mater

answer

Thin, delicate innermost layer of the meninges. It covers the surface of the brain and contains many small blood vessels.

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pons

answer

Area of the brainstem that relays nerve impulses from the body to the cerebellum and back to the body. Area where nerve tracts cross from one side of the body and relay nerve impulses to the opposite side of the cerebrum. Cranial nerves V through VIII originate there.

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receptor

answer

Structure on the cell membrane of a dendrite (or organ, muscle, or gland) where a neurotransmitter binds

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reflex

answer

Involuntary muscle reaction that is controlled by the spinal cord. In response to pain, the spinal cord immediately sends a command to the muscles of the body to move. All of this takes place without conscious thought or processing by the brain. The entire circuit is also known as a reflex arc.

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Schwann cells

answer

Cells that form the myelin sheath around axons of the cranial and spinal nerves

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. serotonin

answer

Neurotransmitter between neurons in the limbic system, hypothalamus, cerebellum, and spinal cord

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somatic nervous system

answer

Division of the nervous system that uses the neurotransmitter acetylcholine and carries nerve impulses to the voluntary skeletal muscles

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spinal cavity

answer

Hollow cavity inside the vertebral column that contains the spinal cord and the origins of the spinal nerves. Also known as the spinal canal.

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spinal cord

answer

Part of the central nervous system. It joins the medulla oblongata of the brain and extends down the back in the spinal cavity. It ends at lumbar vertebra L2 and separates into individual nerves (cauda equina).

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spinal nerves

answer

Thirty-one pairs of nerves. Each pair comes out from the spinal cord between two vertebrae. An individual spinal nerve consists of dorsal nerve roots and ventral nerve roots.

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subarachnoid space

answer

Space beneath the arachnoid layer of the meninges. It is filled with cerebrospinal fluid.

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substantial nigra

answer

A darkly pigmented area in the midbrain of the brainstem that produces the neurotransmitter dopamine

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sulcus

answer

One of many large grooves between the gyri in the cerebrum and cerebellum. Plural: sulci.

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sympathetic nervous system

answer

Division of the autonomic nervous system that uses the neurotransmitter epinephrine and carries nerve impulses to the heart, involuntary muscles, and glands during times of increased activity, danger, or stress

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synapse

answer

Space between the axon of one neuron and the dendrites of the next neuron

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temporal lobe

answer

Lobe of the cerebrum that receives and analyzes sensory information. Contains the auditory cortex for the sense of hearing and the olfactory cortex for the sense of smell.

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thalamus

answer

Area in the center of the brain that acts as a relay station. It takes sensory nerve impulses from the body and sends them to areas in the cerebrum. Cranial nerves II, III, and IV originate from the thalamus.

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trigeminal nerve

answer

Cranial nerve V. Sensation in the eyeball, lower eyelid, scalp, face, lips, and tongue. Movement of the muscles in these areas. Composed of three nerve branches: ophthalmic nerve, maxillary nerve, mandibular nerve.

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trochlear nerve

answer

Cranial nerve IV. Movement of the eyeball.

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vagus nerve

answer

Cranial nerve X. Sensation in the throat, the ears, and the internal organs of the chest and abdomen. Controls the beating of the heart and the movement of the muscles of respiration and digestion.

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ventral nerve roots

answer

Group of spinal nerve roots that exit from the anterior (ventral) part of the spinal cord and carry motor nerve impulses to the body

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ventricles

answer

Four hollow chambers within the brain that contain cerebrospinal fluid. The two lateral ventricles are within the right and left hemispheres of the cerebrum. The third ventricle is small and connects the lateral ventricles to the fourth ventricle, which is next to the cerebellum.

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visual cortex

answer

Area in the occipital lobe of the cerebrum that receives and analyzes sensory nerve impulses from the eye

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white matter

answer

Areas of white tissue in the brain and spinal cord that are composed of axons covered with myelin

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amnesia

answer

Partial or total loss of memory of recent or remote (past) experiences. Often a consequence of brain injury or a stroke that damages the hippocampus where long-term memories are stored and processed. Treatment: None.

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anencephaly

answer

Rare congenital condition in which some or all of the cranium and cerebrum are missing in a newborn. The infant breathes because the respiratory center in the medulla oblongata is intact, but only survives a few hours or days. Treatment: None.

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aphasia

answer

Loss of the ability to communicate verbally or in writing. Aphasia is caused by injury to the areas of the brain that deal with language and the interpretation of sounds and symbols. Patients with aphasia are said to be aphasic. Expressive aphasia is the inability to verbally express thoughts. Receptive aphasia is the inability to understand the spoken or written word. Patients with both types are said to have global aphasia. Impairment that involves some difficulty speaking or understanding words is known as dysphasia. Aphasia can be the result of head trauma, a stroke, or Alzheimer's disease. Treatment: Correct the underlying cause, if possible.

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arteriovenous malformation (AVM)

answer

Abnormality in which arteries in the brain connect directly to veins (rather than to capillaries), forming a twisted nest of blood vessels. An AVM can rupture and cause a stroke. Treatment: Focused beam radiation to destroy the AVM or embolization to block blood flow to the AVM; surgical excision, if needed.

question

brain tumor

answer

Benign or malignant tumor of any area of the brain. Brain tumors arise from the neuroglia or meninges, rather than from neurons themselves. They are named according to the type of brain cell from which they originated (see Table 10-3). Malignant brain tumors can also be secondary tumors that metastasized from a primary malignant tumor elsewhere in the body. Because the cranium is rigid, the enlarging bulk of a benign or malignant tumor causes increased intracranial pressure (ICP) and cerebral edema (see Figure 10-13 ■). This compresses and destroys brain tissue. Treatment: Surgery to remove or debulk the tumor. Chemotherapy or radiation therapy for malignant tumors.

question

cephalalgia

answer

Pain in the head or headache. Headaches can be caused by eyestrain, muscular tension in the face or neck, generalized infections like the flu, migraine headaches, hypertension, or by more serious conditions like head trauma, meningitis, or brain tumors. Treatment: Correct the underlying cause.

question

cerebral palsy (CP)

answer

Cerebral palsy is caused by a lack of oxygen to parts of the baby's brain during birth. The extent of involvement varies, but can include spastic muscles and lack of coordination in walking, eating, and talking. There can be muscle paralysis, seizures, and mental retardation. Treatment: Braces, muscle relaxant drugs.

question

astrocytoma

answer

astrocyte in the cerebrum (malignant)

question

ependymoma

answer

ependymal cells that line the ventricles (Benign)

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glioma

answer

any neuroglial cell (malignant or benign)

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glioblastoma multiforme

answer

immature astrocyte in the cerebrum (malignant)

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lymphoma

answer

microglia in the cerebrum (malignant)

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meningioma

answer

meninges of brain or spinal cord (benign)

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oligodendroglioma

answer

oligodendroglia in the cerebrum (malignant)

question

schwannoma

answer

Schwann cells near the cranial or spinal nerves (benign)

question

cerebrovascular accident (CVA)

answer

Disruption or blockage of blood flow to the brain, which causes tissue ) death and an area of necrosis known as an infarct. The blood flow can est be disrupted by an embolus, thrombus, arteriosclerosis, or hemorrhage. An embolus is a blood clot or piece of fat that forms in another part of the body, travels through the circulatory system, and becomes lodged in an artery of the brain. A thrombus is a blood clot that forms in an artery of the brain that is already partially occluded by arteriosclerosis. Hemorrhage occurs when high blood pressure causes an artery to rupture or when an aneurysm ruptures. A CVA is also known as a stroke or brain attack. A transient ischemic attack (TIA), a tempo-ssue rary lack of oxygenated blood to an area of the brain, is like a CVA, but its effects only last 24 hours. A reversible ischemic neurologic deficit (RIND) is a TIA whose effects last for several days. TIAs and RINDs are precursors to an impending CVA. A cerebrovascular accident on the left j side of the brain affects the right side of the body and visa versa (see ood; Figure 10-14B). The severity of the CVA depends on how much brain I tissue was damaged. Hemiparesis is muscle weakness on one side

question

coma

answer

Deep state of unconsciousness and unresponsiveness caused by trauma or disease in the brain, metabolic imbalance with accumulation of waste products (hepatic coma), or a deficiency of sugar in the blood (diabetic coma). The patient is said to be comatose. Treatment: Correct the underlying cause. Brain death is a condition in which there is irreversible loss of all brain function as confirmed by an electroencephalogram (EEG) that is flat, showing no brain wave activity of any kind for 30 minutes.

question

concussion

answer

Traumatic injury to the brain that results in the immediate loss of consciousness for a brief or prolonged period of time. Even after consciousness returns, the patient must be watched closely for signs of sleepiness or irritability that could indicate a slowly enlarging hemorrhage in the brain. A contusion is a traumatic injury to the brain or spinal cord. There is no loss of consciousness, but there is bruising with some bleeding in the tissues. Shaken baby syndrome is caused by an adult vigorously shaking an infant in anger or to discipline the child. Because the infant's head is large and the neck muscles are weak, severe shaking causes the head to whip back and forth. This can cause a contusion, concussion, hemorrhaging, mental retardation, coma, or even death.

question

cerebrovascular accident (CVA) (■continued)

answer

of the body. Hemiplegia is paralysis on one side of the body, and the patient is said to be hemiplegic (see Figure 10-15B). A CVA can also cause amnesia, aphasia, dysphasia, or dysphagia (difficulting swallowing). Treatment: Thrombolytic drugs to break up a thrombus or embolus that is occluding the artery. Surgery: Carotid endarterectomy, aneurysm clipping, or aneurysmectomy to prevent a CVA.

question

dementia

answer

Disease of the brain in which many neurons in the cerebrum die, the cerebral cortex shrinks in size, and there is progressive deterioration in mental function (see Figures 10-16® and 10-17■). The initial symptoms include a gradual decline in mental abilities, with forgetfulness, inability to learn new things, inability to perform daily activities, and difficulty making decisions. The patient uses the wrong words and is unable to comprehend what others say. The symptoms become progressively more severe over time and include inability to care for personal needs, inability to recognize friends and family, and complete memory loss. Psychiatric symptoms of depression, anxiety, impulsiveness, and combativeness may also be present. Dementia is most often associated with old age (senile dementia) and the cumulative effect of multiple small cerebrovascular accidents (multi-infarct dementia). Dementia can also be caused by brain trauma, chronic alcoholism or drug abuse, or chronic neurodegenerative diseases like multiple sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, and Huntington's chorea. However, the most common cause of

question

dementia (continued)

answer

dementia is Alzheimer's disease. Alzheimer's disease is a hereditary dementia that is known to run in families with inherited mutations on chromosomes 1,14, and 21. At autopsy, the neurons show characteristic neurofibrillary tangles that distort the cells. There are also microscopic senile plaques. The brain also has decreased levels of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Alzheimer's disease usually occurs in late middle age or elderly persons and is a form of senile dementia. Alzheimer's disease that occurs in early middle age is known as early-onset Alzheimer's disease or presenile dementia. Treatment: Drugs that increase the level of acetylcholine in the brain or increase blood flow to the brain.

question

Down syndrome

answer

Congenital genetic defect in which there are three of chromosome 21, instead of the normal two. This defect affects every cell in the body, but the most obvious functional limitation is mild-to-severe mental retardation. Persons with Down syndrome also have characteristic facial features with a thick, protruding tongue and short fingers with a single transverse palmar crease (see Figure 10-18 ■).

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dyslexia

answer

Difficulty reading and writing words even though visual acuity and intelligence are normal. The patient may write particular alphabet letters backwards or may change the order of letters in a word. Dyslexia tends to run in families and is more prevalent in left-handed persons and in males. Dyslexia is caused by an abnormality in the areas of the cerebrum that process visual images, particularly moving images (as the eye moves quickly across the page). A person with dyslexia is said to be dyslexic. Treatment: Educational techniques that help a child learn to compensate or overcome this difficulty.

question

encephalitis

answer

Inflammation of the brain caused by a virus. Herpes simplex virus is the most common cause of encephalitis, but others include herpes zoster virus, West Nile virus, and cytomegalovirus. Initial symptoms include fever, headache, stiff neck, lethargy, vomiting, irritability, and photophobia. Treatment: Only encephalitis caused by the herpesvirus responds to antiviral drugs. Corticosteroid drugs to decrease inflammation of the brain. Antibiotic drugs are not effective against viruses.

question

epilepsy

answer

Recurring condition in which a group of neurons in the brain spontaneously sends out electrical impulses in an abnormal, uncontrolled way. These impulses spread from neuron to neuron, causing altered consciousness and abnormal muscle movements. The type and extent of the symptoms depend on the number and location of the affected neurons. Also known as seizures or convulsions. A patient with epilepsy is said to be epileptic. There are four common types of epilepsy (see Table 10-4). With each type of epilepsy, the patient displays a specific EEG pattern during a seizure (see Figures 10-1911 and 10-2OB). Status epilepticus is a state of prolonged continuous seizure activity or frequently repeated individual seizures that occur without the patient . regaining consciousness. Before the onset of a seizure, some epileptics experience an aura, a visual, olfactory, sensory, or auditory sign (flashing lights, strange odor, tingling, or buzzing sound) that warns them of an impending seizure. After a tonic-clonic seizure, the patient experiences sleepiness and confusion. This is known as the postictal state. Treatment: Antiepileptic drugs.

question

tonic-clonic (grand mal)

answer

Unconsciousness with excessive motor activity. The body alternates between excessive muscle tone with rigidity (tonic) and jerking muscle contractions (clonic) in the extremities, with tongue biting, and sometimes incontinence. Lasts 1-2 minutes.

question

absence (petit mal)

answer

Impaired consciousness with slight or no muscle activity. Muscle tone is retained and the patient does not fall down, but is unable to respond to external stimuli. Sometimes includes vacant staring and repetitive blinking or facial tics. Lasts 10 seconds, after which the patient resumes activities and is unaware of the seizure. Patient may have many absence seizures during the course of a day.

question

complex partial (psychomotor)

answer

Some degree of impairment of consciousness. Involuntary contractions of one or several muscle groups. Obvious automatisms like lip smacking and patterns of muscle movement can be present.

question

simple partial (focal motor)

answer

No impairment of consciousness. The patient is aware of the seizure but is unable to stop the motor activity. Involuntary contractions of one or several muscle groups (jerking of one hand, turning of the head). May also include sensory hallucinations.

question

Huntington's chorea

answer

Progressive inherited degenerative disease of the brain that begins in middle age. It is characterized by dementia with irregular spasms of the extremities and face (chorea) alternating with slow writhing movements of the hands and feet (athetosis). Treatment: None.

question

hydrocephalus

answer

Condition in which an excessive amount of cerebrospinal fluid is produced or the flow of cerebrospinal fluid is blocked. The intracranial pressure builds up, distends the ventricles in the brain, and compresses the brain tissue. Hydrocephalus is most often associated with the congenital conditions of meningocele or myelomeningocele (see Figure 10-22), although it can occur in adults (normal pressure hydrocephalus) when the cerebrospinal fluid is not absorbed back into the blood. Untreated hydrocephalus causes a grossly enlarged head and mental retardation. The patient is said to be hydrocephalic. A layman's phrase for this condition is "water on the brain." Treatment: Placement of a ventriculoperitoneal shunt to move excess cerebrospinal fluid from the cranial cavity to the peritoneal cavity.

question

hematoma

answer

Localized collection of blood that forms in the brain because of the rupture of an artery or vein. This can be caused by trauma to the cranium or an intracranial aneurysm that ruptures. An intraventricular hematoma occurs within one of the ventricles. A subdural hematoma forms between the dura mater and the arachnoid (see Figure 10-21®). Treatment: Surgery to remove the hematoma, if needed.

question

meningitis

answer

Inflammation of the meninges of the brain or spinal cord by a bacterial or viral infection. There is fever, headache, nuchal rigidity (stiff neck) lethargy, vomiting, irritability, and photophobia. Treatment: Vaccination to prevent bacterial meningitis in susceptible groups (particularly college students). Antibiotic drugs to treat bacterial meningitis. Corticosteroid drugs to decrease inflammation.

question

migraine headache

answer

Specific type of recurring headache that has a sudden onset with severe, throbbing pain, often on just one side of the head. This is often accompanied by nausea and vomiting and sensitivity to light (photophobia). Migraines are caused by a constriction of the arteries in the brain followed by a sudden dilation. Treatment: Drugs that keep the blood vessels constricted during a migraine.

question

narcolepsy

answer

Brief, involuntary episodes of falling asleep during the daytime while engaged in activity. The patient is not unconscious and can be aroused, but is unable to prevent falling asleep. There is a hereditary component to narcolepsy, and it may be an autoimmune disorder. There is also an underlying abnormality of REM sleep. Treatment: Central nervous system stimulant drugs.

question

Parkinson's disease

answer

Chronic, degenerative disease due to an imbalance in the levels of the neurotransmitters dopamine and acetylcholine in the brain. Early symptoms include muscle rigidity, tremors, and a slowing of voluntary movements. Later, the patient shows a mask-like facial expression, shuffling gait, or inability to ambulate. Treatment: Drugs that increase the amount of dopamine in the brain or drugs that inhibit the action of acetylcholine in the brain.

question

syncope

answer

Temporary loss of consciousness. A syncopal episode is one in which the patient becomes lightheaded and then faints and briefly remains unconscious. Most often caused by carotid artery stenosis and plaque or cardiac arrhythmias that decrease blood flow to the brain.

question

neural tube defect

answer

Congenital abnormality of the neural tube (embryonic structure that develops into the fetal brain and spinal cord). The vertebrae form incompletely (spina bifida), and there is an abnormal opening in the vertebral column through which the spinal cord and nerves may protrude to the outside of the body. This defect is covered only by the meninges (see Figure 10-228). A meningocele is the protrusion of the meninges through the defect. A meningomyelocele is the protrusion of the meninges and the spinal cord; it is also known as myelomeningocele. Children with meningocele or meningomyelocele may also have hydrocephalus. The amount of spinal cord involvement determines the degree of impairment of muscle control of the legs and bladder and bowel function. Amniotic fluid extracted during the pregnancy shows elevated levels of alpha fetoprotein. Treatment: Surgery to close the defect immediately after birth because of the risk of infection. The surgery is not able to restore function. The hydrocephalus is treated separately.

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radiculopathy

answer

Acute or chronic condition that occurs when the herniated nucleus pulposus (HNP) of an intervertebral disk is forced out through a weak area in the disk wall and presses on adjacent spinal nerve roots. This usually involves a lumbar disk and is often caused by heavy lifting and poor body mechanics. Also known as a slipped disk. Symptoms include pain, numbness, and paresthesias along the dermatome for that spinal nerve. Also known as sciatica because the pain is often from compression of several branches of the sciatic nerve whose nerve roots come from L4, L5, and the sacrum. Treatment: Anti-inflammatory drugs, bed rest, traction to the spine, physical therapy. Nerve root injection. Surgery: Rhizotomy, diskectomy, or laminectomy.

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spinal cord injury (SCI) .

answer

Trauma to the spinal cord with a partial or complete transection of the cord. This interrupts nerve impulses to particular dermatomes, causing partial or complete anesthesia (loss of sensation) and paralysis (an inability to voluntarily move the muscles). An injury to the lower spinal cord causes paraplegia with paralysis of the legs. A patient with paraplegia is known as a paraplegic. An injury to the upper spinal cord causes quadriplegia with paralysis of all four extremies. A patient with quadriplegia is known as a quadriplegic (see Figure 10-23H). After a suspected spinal cord injury, the patient is carefully transported to the hospital on a rigid spinal board, with a cervical collar in place, and with the head taped to the board to prevent any movement of the head, neck, or back that might further injure the spinal cord. Without nerve impulses, the muscles lose their tone and firmness and eventually atrophy. This is known as flaccid paralysis. However, the reflex arc of the lower spinal cord often remains intact and, in response to pain or a full bladder, the spinal cord below the injury will send nerve impulses that cause the muscles to spasm. This is known as spastic paralysis. The bladder may also contract spontaneously, causing incontinence. Treatment: Traction to the skull to align the vertebrae. Surgery may be needed to fuse damaged vertebrae. Corticosteroid drugs to decrease spinal cord swelling. Passive range of motion exercises, splints, muscle relaxant drugs. (continued)

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spinal cord injury (SCI) (continued)

answer

The level of the spinal cord where an injury occurs and whether the spinal cord was partially or completely transected determines how much of the body is affected and to what extent. Paraplegia affects the lower body and the legs. Quadriplegia affects the body from the neck down and all four extremities.

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amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)

answer

Chronic, progressive disease of the motor nerves of the spinal cord. Symptoms include muscle wasting, spasms, and eventual paralysis of all the muscles, including the swallowing and respiratory muscles. There is no damage to the sensory nerves and so sensation remains intact. Some cases of ALS are caused by the lack of an enzyme, which is an inherited defect; but in most cases the cause is not known. Also known as Lou Gehrig's disease after the famous baseball player who developed the disease in the late 1930s. Treatment: Supportive care.

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anesthesia

answer

Condition in which sensation of any type, including touch, pressure, proprioception, or pain, has been completely lost. Local areas of anesthesia can occur temporarily when your hand goes numb from pressing on a nerve in your arm as you sleep. Permanent anesthesia along a dermatome can occur after a spinal cord injury. Unconsciousness is accompanied by an inability to perceive any sensation, and this is the basis for the use of drugs that induce general anesthesia prior to a surgical procedure. Temporary therapeutic anesthesia can also be produced in specific regions by injecting an anesthetic drug under the skin, near a nerve root, or into the epidural space in the spinal cavity.

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Bell's palsy

answer

Weakness, drooping, or actual paralysis of one side of the face because of inflammation of the facial nerve (cranial nerve VII). Probably due to a viral infection, possibly herpesvirus. The condition usually lasts a month and resolves by itself. Treatment: Corticosteroid drugs.

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carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS)

answer

Chronic condition with tingling in the hand because of inflammation and swelling of the tendons that go through the carpal tunnel of the wrist bones to reach the hand. The swelling compresses the median nerve. Caused by repetitive motions of the hand and wrist, often from constant typing or data entry. Bending the wrist down aggravates the pain and is a positive diagnostic test. Treatment: Rest, splinting the wrist, use of a special split keyboard that positions the wrists differently, physical therapy. Surgery, if needed.

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Guillain-Barre syndrome

answer

Autoimmune disorder in which the body makes antibodies against myelin. There is acute inflammation of the peripheral nerves, loss of myelin with interruption of nerve conduction, muscle weakness, and changes in sensation (paresthesias). This disease is caused by a triggering event of an infection (often a viral respiratory illness), stress, or trauma. The muscle weakness begins in the legs and then rapidly involves the entire body. The patient may even temporarily require respiratory support until the inflammation subsides. Guillain-Barre does not recur, and the patient recovers some or all neurologic function over a period of days to months. Treatment: Corticosteroid drugs.

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hyperesthesia

answer

Condition in which there is an abnormally heightened awareness and sensitivity to touch and increased response to painful stimuli. Treatment: A variety of drugs (antidepressants, tranquilizers) are used and are somewhat effective.

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multiple sclerosis (MS)

answer

Chronic, progressive, degenerative autoimmune disease in which the body makes antibodies against myelin. There is acute inflammation of the nerves and loss of myelin (demyelinization) with interruption of nerve conduction in the brain and spinal cord. The areas of demyelinization eventually become scar tissue that is hard. These areas are known as plaque and can be seen on MRI scans of the brain. This disease may be caused by a triggering event such as a viral infection. Patients are typically in their 20s to early middle age. Early symptoms include double vision, nystagmus, large muscle weakness, uncoordinated gait, spasticity, incoordination, early fatigue after repeated muscle contractions, tremors, and paresthesias. Patients with MS experience periodic remissions in which their symptoms become slightly better, followed by exacerbations or flare-ups with worsening of symptoms over time. Heat, stress, and fatigue temporarily worsen the symptoms. Late symptoms include inability to walk and sometimes dementia. Treatment: Anti-inflammatory drugs, corticosteroid drugs for flare-ups, muscle relaxant drugs.

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neuralgia

answer

Pain along the path of a nerve and its branches caused by an injury. Neuralgia can be mild to severe in nature. Trigeminal neuralgia, also known as tic douloreux, is characterized by stabbing pain for a few seconds on one side of the face or jaw along the distribution of the trigeminal nerve (cranial nerve V). Causalgia is severe, burning pain along a nerve and its branches. Complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS) involves causalgia, with hyperesthesia, changes in skin color and temperature, and swelling. Treatment: A variety of different drugs have been tried with varying levels of success: Anti-inflammatory drugs, topical anesthetic drugs, corticosteroid drugs, antidepressant drugs, anticonvulsant drugs, skeletal muscle relaxant drugs. Also nerve blocks, TENS unit, and physical therapy.

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neuritis

answer

Inflammation or infection of a nerve. Polyneuritis is a generalized inflammation of many nerves in one part of the body or all the nerves in the body. Treatment: Correct the underlying cause; analgesic drugs, anti-inflammatory drugs, corticosteroid drugs, or antibiotic drugs.

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neurofibromatosis s

answer

Hereditary disease with multiple benign tumors (neurofibromata) that arise from the peripheral nerves. These are most noticeable on the skin, but they can also be present anywhere in the body—on the internal organs and even in the eye. They range in size from small-to-medium nodules to large tumors. Also known as von Recklinghausen's disease.

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neuroma

answer

Benign tumor of a nerve or any of the specialized cells of the nervous system. A Morton's neuroma specifically forms from repetitive damage to the nerve around the metatarsophalangeal joint between the ball of the foot and the toes. Treatment: Surgical excision, if desired.

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neuropathy

answer

General category for any type of disease or injury to a nerve. Treatment: Correct the underlying cause.

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paresthesia

answer

Condition in which abnormal sensations like tingling, burning, or pinpricks are felt on the skin. Paresthesias are often the result of chronic nerve damage from pinched nerves or diabetic neuropathy. Treatment: Correct the underlying cause. ■

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alpha fetoprotein (AFP)

answer

Chemistry test performed on amniotic fluid extracted from the uterus via amniocentesis during pregnancy. Used to diagnose a neural tube defect in the fetus before birth. The fetal liver makes alpha fetoprotein, and small amounts are normally present in the amniotic fluid. However, increased levels indicate that alpha fetoprotein is leaking into the amniotic fluid from a myelocele or meningomyelocele.

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cerebrospinal fluid (CFS) examination

answer

Laboratory test that examines the CSF macroscopically for clarity and color, microscopically for cells, and chemically for proteins and other substances. Normal CSF is clear and colorless. Large numbers of red blood cells cause the CSF to have a pink or reddish tint. Red blood cells indicate bleeding in the brain from a stroke or trauma. Large numbers of white blood cells cause the CSF to appear cloudy. White blood cells indicate an infection like meningitis or encephalitis. Elevated protein levels indicate infection or the presence of a tumor. The presence of oligo-clonal bands points to multiple sclerosis. Myelin-basic protein is elevated in multiple sclerosis and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.

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carotid duplex scan

answer

Radiologic procedure that uses ultrasound (high-frequency sound waves) to produce a two-dimensional image to visualize areas of stenosis and plaque in the carotid arteries.

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cerebral angiography

answer

Radiologic procedure in which a radiopaque contrast dye is injected into the carotid arteries, and an x-ray is taken to visualize the arterial circulation in the brain (see Figure 10-24 HI). This shows an aneurysm, stenosis, or plaque in the arteries. A tumor can be seen as an interwoven collection of new blood vessels, or it can be seen indirectly when it distorts normal anatomy and forces arteries into abnormal positions. Also known as arteriography. The x-ray image is known as an angiogram or an arteriogram.

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computed axial tomography (CAT, CT)

answer

Radiologic procedure that uses x-rays to create many individual, closely spaced images ("slices"). The computer can combine these into one three-dimensional image. CT scans are used to view the skull, brain, vertebral column, and spinal cord. Radiopaque contrast dye can be injected to provide more detail. .

question

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

answer

Radiologic procedure that uses a magnetic field and radiowaves to align the protons in the body and cause them to emit signals. The signals are used to construct an image. Magnetic resonance imaging is a type of tomography that creates many individual "slice" images. MRI scans are used to view the skull, brain, vertebral column, and spinal cord (see Figure 10-13). Radiopaque contrast dye can be injected to provide more detail.

question

myelography

answer

Radiologic procedure in which a radiopaque contrast dye is injected into the subarachnoid space at the level of the L3 and L4 vertebrae. The contrast dye outlines the spinal cavity and shows spinal nerves, nerve roots, and intervertebral disks, plus any tumors, herniated disks, or obstructions within the cavity. The x-ray image is known as a myelogram. Because myelograms can have a side effect of severe headache, they are not used as often as MRI scans of the spine.

question

positron emission tomography (PET) scan

answer

Nuclear medicine procedure that uses a radioactive substance that emits positrons. This substance is combined with glucose molecules and injected intravenously. As the glucose is metabolized, the radioactive substance emits positrons, and these form gamma rays that are detected by a gamma camera. The camera produces an image that reflects the amount of metabolism in that area (see Figure 10-16). PET scans show areas of increased metabolism due to cancerous tumors. PET scans also show areas of abnormally increased or decreased metabolism in the brains of patients with Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, epilepsy, and schizophrenia (see Figure 10-17).

question

skull x-ray

answer

Radiologic procedure in which a plain film (without contrast dye) is taken of the skull. An x-ray can show fractures of the bones of the skull but cannot clearly show the soft tissues of the brain or blood vessels.

question

electroencephalography (EEG)

answer

Diagnostic procedure to record the electrical activity of the brain (see Figure 10-19). Multiple electrodes are placed on the scalp overlying the specific lobes of the brain. The electrodes are attached to lead wires that go to the electroencephalograph, the machine that records the brain waves. The computerized or paper recording of the brain waves is an electroencephalogram. There are four types of normal brain waves (named for letters of the Greek alphabet: alpha, beta, delta, and theta). (■continued)

question

electroencephalography (EEG) 0continued)

answer

The patterns of brain waves in each of the two hemispheres of the cerebrum are compared for symmetry. Differences between the two hemispheres suggest a tumor or injury. The presence of abnormal waves suggests encephalopathy or dementia. Brain waves during an epileptic seizure show specific patterns that are used to diagnose the particular type of epilepsy. In order to induce an epileptic seizure during the EEG, the patient may look at flashing lights or have a sleep-deprived EEG recording. An EEG is also done as a polysomnography to diagnose sleep disorders and also as part of evoked potential testing.

question

evoked potential testing

answer

Diagnostic procedure in which an EEG is used to record changes in brain waves that occur following various stimuli. Used to evaluate the potential ability of a particular nervous pathway to conduct nerve impulses. A stimulus is presented to evoke a response, which is why this procedure is also called an evoked response. For a visual evoked potential (VEP) or visual evoked response (VER), the patient watches a TV monitor that displays rapidly alternating checkerboard patterns. This evaluates the condition of nerve pathways from the eye to the cerebrum. For a brainstem auditory evoked potential (BAEP) or brainstem auditory evoked response (BAER), the patient has on headphones and listens to a series of clicks in one ear and then the other. This evaluates the nerve pathways from the ears to the cerebrum. For a somatosensory evoked potential (SSEP) or somatosensory evoked response (SSER), a small electrical impulse is administered to the arm or leg. This test evaluates the nerve pathways from the limbs to the cerebrum. These tests are particularly helpful with patients who are too young or too incapacitated to respond to standard vision and hearing tests. These tests are also used to detect subtle abnormalities in patients with multiple sclerosis, head trauma, or spinal cord injury. The patient cannot voluntarily alter the response to these tests.

question

nerve conduction study

answer

Medical procedure to measure the speed at which an electrical impulse travels along a nerve. An electrode is used to stimulate a peripheral nerve with an electrical impulse. Another electrode a measured distance away records how long it takes for the electrical impulse to reach it. This test is usually performed in conjunction with electromyography to help differentiate between weakness due to nerve disorders versus muscle disorders.

question

polysomnography

answer

Multifaceted test to diagnose the underlying conditions that can cause insomnia, sleep disruption, sleep apnea, or narcolepsy. Electrodes on the face and head and various other monitors are applied to the patient. During sleep, the patient's EEG, eye movements, muscle activity, heartbeat, and respirations are monitored. Also known as a sleep study.

question

Babinski's sign

answer

Neurologic test in which the end of the metal handle of the percussion hammer is used to firmly stroke the lateral sole of the foot from the heel to the toes. A normal test or negative Babinski shows downward curling of the toes. An abnormal test or positive Babinski shows upward extension of the great toe and lateral fanning of the other toes (see Figure 10-2511). A positive Babinski indicates injury to the parietal lobe or to the spinal nerves.

question

Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS)

answer

Numerical scale that measures the depth of a coma. The scores range from 3 to 15 and are the sum of individual scores for eye opening, motor response, and verbal response following a painful stimulus such as pressure on the nailbed or on the supraorbital ridge over the eye. For example, if a patient opens his eyes to a verbal command, has confused answers, and withdraws from the painful stimulus, his GCS would be E(3) + V (4) + M (4) = 11.

question

lumbar puncture (LP)

answer

Medical procedure to obtain cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) for testing. Also known as a spinal tap. The patient is positioned on the side with the chest flexed toward the thighs. This curves the spine and widens the space between the spinous processes of two vertebrae, allowing accurate positioning of the spinal needle (see Figure 10-2611). A needle is inserted in the space between the L3-4 or L4-5 vertebrae and into the subarachnoid space. Cerebrospinal fluid flows through the needle and is collected and sent to the laboratory. Before the spinal needle is removed, a calibrated manometer may be attached to the needle to measure the intracranial pressure as the CSF rises in the manometer.

question

mini mental status examination (MMSE)

answer

Tests the patient's concrete and abstract thought processes and long-and short-term memory. The patient is asked to state his/her name, the date, and where he/she is. If the answers are al! correct, the patient is said to be oriented to person, time, and place or oriented x3. The patient is asked to perform simple mental arithmetic, recall objects or words, name the current and recent past presidents, spell a word backwards, and give the meaning of a proverb. A full mental status examination is used for psychiatric evaluations.

question

neurologic examination

answer

Tests coordination, sensation, balance, and gait. Coordination. Rapid alternating movements: Tap the tip of the index finger against the thumb many times as rapidly as possible. Finger-to-nose test: Touch the tip of the index finger to the nose with the eyes closed. Touch the nose, then the examiner's finger as it moves around, then the nose. Heel-to-shin test: Put the heel of one foot onto the opposite leg and then run it from the knee down the shin to the toes. Sensation. With the patient's eyes closed, the skin is touched in various places with a cotton swab (to test light touch), a vibrating tuning fork (to test vibration), the point of a pin (pinprick to test pain). One or two pins are used to see if the patient can distinguish the number of things touching the skin (2-point discrimination). The patient's toe or finger is moved up and down and the patient is asked to identify the direction (to test body position and proprioception). Balance. Romberg test in which the patient stands with the feet together and the eyes closed. In a normal test, the patient does not sway excessively or lose balance. The Romberg test is also known as the station test. Gait. The manner of walking is assessed for a normal arm swing and stride. The patient is asked to walk across the room in a heel-to-toe fashion, then on the toes, on the heels, and then hop in place on each foot.

question

spinal traction

answer

Medical procedure in which a fracture of the vertebra is immobilized while it heals. Two metal pins are surgically inserted into the cranium and attached to a set of tongs (see Figure 10-27B) with a rope and pulley and 7-10 pounds of weight. A patient with a partially healed fracture of the vertebra can be fitted for a halo vest with pins in the cranium attached to a metal ring (halo).

question

transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) unit

answer

Medical procedure that uses an electrical device to control chronic pain. A battery produces regular, preset electrical impulses that travel through wires to electrodes on the skin. These impulses block the transmission of pain sensations to the brain. The impulses also stimulate the body to produce its own natural pain-relieving endorphins.

question

biopsy

answer

Surgical procedure to remove a tumor or mass from the brain or other part of the nervous system. This is an excisional biopsy because the entire tumor or mass is removed and sent to the laboratory for microscopic examination to determine if it is benign or malignant. Even a benign tumor must be totally removed because it causes increasing pressure within the inflexible bony cranium.

question

carotid endarterectomy

answer

Surgical procedure to remove plaque from the carotid artery. This opens up the lumen of the artery, restores blood flow to the brain, and decreases the possibility of a stroke.

question

craniotomy

answer

Surgical incision into the cranium to expose the brain tissue. A craniotomy is the first phase of any type of brain surgery (i.e., evacuation of a subdural hematoma or excising a brain tumor).

question

diskectomy

answer

Surgical excision of part or all of the herniated nucleus pulposus from an intervertebral disk. This relieves pressure on the adjacent dorsal nerve roots and relieves the pain.

question

laminectomy

answer

Surgical excision of the lamina (the flat area of the arch of the vertebra). Removal of this bony segment relieves pressure on the dorsal nerve roots and relieves pain from a herniated nucleus pulposus.

question

stereotactic neurosurgery

answer

Surgical procedure that uses three-dimensional excision of a deep tumor within the cerebrum. A CT or MRI scan is used to show the tumor in three dimensions and obtain its precise coordinates. The patient's head is fixed in a stereotactic apparatus that acts as a guidance system to position an electrode within the brain. Then heat, cold, or high-energy gamma rays are used to destroy the tumor.

question

analgesic drugs

answer

Over-the-counter aspirin and nonaspirin drugs used to decrease inflammation and pain. Narcotic drugs are another type of analgesic drugs that are addicting and used to treat severe, chronic pain.

question

antiepileptic drugs

answer

Prevent the seizures of epilepsy. Also known as anticonvulsant drugs.

question

chemotherapy drugs

answer

Kill rapidly dividing cancer cells in the brain.

question

ventriculo-peritoneal shunt

answer

Surgical procedure to insert a plastic tube to connect the ventricles of the brain to the peritoneal cavity. The shunt continuously removes excess cerebrospinal fluid associated with hydrocephalus.

question

COMT inhibitor drugs

answer

Treat Parkinson's disease by inhibiting the enzyme that metabolizes the drug levodopa. This allows more levodopa to reach the brain.

question

corticosteroid drugs

answer

Used to suppress inflammation in chronic pain conditions and multiple sclerosis. Used to treat swelling and edema in the brain or spinal cord following traumatic injury or stroke.

question

drugs for Alzheimer's disease

answer

Treat the lack of acetylcholine in the brain by inhibiting the enzyme that breaks down acetylcholine.

question

drugs for myasthenia gravis

answer

Treat the lack of acetylcholine in the muscles by inhibiting the enzyme that breaks down acetylcholine.

question

drugs for Parkinson's disease

answer

Treat the imbalance in the brain between dopamine and acetylcholine by supplying dopamine or inhibiting acetylcholine.

question

general anesthetic drugs

answer

Produces unconsciousness. Used during surgery.

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