CC Challenge A Henle Latin Grammar Rules – Flashcards
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*The Alphabet.* The Latin Alphabet has no *w* or *y*; otherwise it is the same as the English.
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*1. The Alphabet*
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*Pronunciation.* The Latin letters are pronounced as follows: Vowels: Long ____Vowels: Short *ā* as in father; ___*a* as in facility; *ē* as in they; ____*e* as in get; *ī* as in machine; __*i* as in fit; *ō* as in no; ______*o* as in obey; *ū* as in rule. _____*u* as in put.
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*2. Pronunciation: Long/Short Vowels*
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*[Pronunciation.]* *Note:* Very often in practice the difference between the long and short vowels is ignored, all of them being given the quality of long vowels. In reading poetry a quantitative difference alone is then maintained between long and short vowels.
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*3. Pronunciation Note: Long and Short Vowels Ignored*
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*[Pronunciation.]* *Diphthongs:* *ae, oe* - like e as in they; *au* - like ou as in out.
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*4. Pronunciation: Dipthongs*
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*[Pronunciation.]* *Consonants:* Most consonants are pronounced as in English, but *c* and *g* are soft before *e, i, ae, oe*; otherwise hard. Hard *c* as in cat; soft *c* as in cell. Hard *g* as in gun; soft *g* as in germ. *j* is pronounced like *y* as in yet.
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*5. Pronunciation: Consonants*
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*Division into Syllables.* a. A single consonant goes with the following vowel. *mā/ter ; nau/ta; nō/men*
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*6. Division into Syllables: Single Consonant*
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*[Division into Syllables.]* b. Two or more consonants are divided after the first. *por/ta; exer/citus; pul/chra*
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*7. Division into Syllables: Two or More Consonants*
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*[Division into Syllables.]* *Note:* But when mute *(c, g, p, b, t, d)* or *f *is followed by *r* or *l*, both consonants go with the following vowel. *la/crima; a/grum; pa/trem; va/fra; locu/plēs*
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*8. Division into Syllables Note: Mute Consonants*
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*Accent* a. In words of two syllables the accent is on the first. *vi'a; be'llum*
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*9. Accent: Two Syllables*
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*[Accent]* b. In words of more than two syllables, if the second last syllable is long it is accented; otherwise the accent is on the third last syllable. *vidē'runt; a'gmĭne*
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*10. Accent: More Than Two Syllables*
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*Quantity of Syllables.* a. A syllable is short if it contains a vowel that is short by nature or that is followed by another vowel or diphthong. *regĕre; glorĭa*
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*11. Quantity of Syllables: Short Syllables*
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*[Quantity of Syllables.]* b. A syllable is long if it contains a vowel that is long by nature or a vowel that is followed by two consonants other than a mute *(c, g, p, b, t, d)* or *f* followed by a liquid *(r, l).* *studēre; regendus*
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*12. Quantity of Syllables: Long Syllables*
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*[Quantity of Syllables.]* *Note:* *x* and *z* each count as two consonants *(cs and ds); h* and the *u* in *qu* do not count as consonants.
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*13. Quantity of Syllables Note: x, z, h, u*
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*Nouns.* Nouns have gender, number, case, and declension.
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*14. Nouns have...*
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*[Nouns.]* *Gender.* There are three genders in Latin: masculine, feminine, neuter.
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*15. Nouns: Genders*
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*[Nouns.]* *[Gender.]* All nouns meaning individual male persons are masculine
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*16 Nouns: Masculine*
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*[Nouns.]* *[Gender.]* All nouns meaning individual female persons are feminine
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*17. Nouns: Feminine*
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*[Nouns.]* *[Gender.]* The gender of other nouns must be learned from their declension or from the vocabularies.
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*18. Nouns: Others*
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*[Nouns.]* *Number.* There are two numbers in Latin: singular and plural.
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*19. Nouns: Number*
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*[Nouns.]* *[Number.]* The singular speaks of one: *via*, a road.
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*20. Nouns: Singular*
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*[Nouns.]* *[Number.]* The plural speaks of more than one: *viae*, roads
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*21. Nouns: Plural*
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*[Nouns.]* *Case.* There are six cases in Latin: *Nominative: Subject*, the case of the Subject *Genitive: Possessive*, the case of the Possessor *Dative: Indirect Object*, the case of the Indirect Object; the *'to'* or *'for'* case. *Accusative: Direct Object*, the case of the Direct Object. *Ablative: Object of the Preposition*, the *'by-with-from'* case [used frequently with prepositions]. *Vocative*: the case of the *Person Addressed*.
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*22. Nouns: Cases*
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*[Nouns.]* *Declension.* Declension consists in adding the proper ENDINGS to the STEM to show the different genders, numbers, and cases.
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*23. Nouns: Declension*
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*[Nouns.]* *Stem.* The stem is found by dropping the ENDING of the GENITIVE SINGULAR. *vi-ae*, stem: *vi-*
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*24. Nouns: Stem*
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*The Five Declensions.* There are five declensions in Latin. They can be distinguished by the endings of the genitive singular. __*1st * __* 2nd *___ * 3rd * ___ * 4th *__ * 5th* __*-ae* ____*-ī* ___* -is* ____* -ūs* ___*-eī* vi *-ae* _ serv *-ī * _ lēg*-is * _ port *-ūs* _ r *-eī*
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*25. Nouns: Number of Declensions*
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*How to Decline a Noun.* The nominative, genitive, and gender of a noun determine which model it follows. Add the endings of that model to the stem.
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*26. How to Decline a Noun*
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*[How to Decline a Noun.]* *Note:* a. The stem is that part of the word which remains the same in spelling throughout the declension. It gives the meaning of the word. The endings show what the word does in the sentence, whether it is the subject, direct object, indirect object, etc.
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*27. How to Decline a Noun Note: Stem/Endings*
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*[How to Decline a Noun.]* *[Note:]* b. The *vocative* of all nouns and adjectives is always like the nominative except in singular nouns in *-us* of the second declension: these have *-e. Serv-e!* Slave! *EXCEPTIONS:* Proper nouns in *-ius* and *fīlius*, son, have only *-ī* in the vocative singular. *Vergilius*, voc. *Vergilī; fīlius*, voc. *fīlī.* The vocative singular of *Deus*, God, is *Deus;* the vocative masculine singular of *meus* is *mī;* *fīlī mī!* my son!
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*28. How to Decline a Noun Note: Vocative (& Exceptions)*
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*[How to Decline a Noun.]* *[Note:]* c. The *accusative* of neuter nouns and adjectives is always like the nominative.
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*29. How to Decline a Noun Note: Accusative*
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*[How to Decline a Noun.]* *[Note:]* d. Names of towns, and *domus*, home, and *rūs*, country, have another case -the locative- expressing place where. In singulars of the first and second declensions in the locative is like the genitive: *Rōmae*, at Rome. In all others it is like the ablative: *Carthāgine (Carthāgō, Carthāginis)*, at Carthage. But *rūs*, country, has *rūrī* or *rūre*, in the country. See No. 915.
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*30. How to Decline a Noun Note: Locative*
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All nouns whose genitive ends in *-ae* are in the first declension.
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Text, pg 6 *-ae Nouns = 1st Declension*
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*The First Declension.* *----------------- SINGULAR ----------------* *____Form __Meaning _____(Use)* Nom. - *terr-a* = land, the (a) land *(S)* Gen. - *terr-ae* = of the (a) land *(P)* Dat. - *terr-ae* = to or for the (a) land *(IO)* Acc. - *terr-am* = the (a) land *(DO)* Abl. - *terr-ā* = by, with, from the (a) land *(OPr)* *------------------ PLURAL -------------------* * ____Form ___Meaning ____(Use)* Nom. - *terr-ae* = lands, the lands *(S)* Gen. - *terr-ārum* = of the lands *(P)* Dat. - *terr-īs* = to or for the lands *(IO)* Acc. - *terr-ās* = lands, the lands *(DO)* Abl. - *terr-īs* = by, with, from the lands *(OPr)*
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*31. The 1st Declension*
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*[The First Declension.]* *Gender:* a. All nouns naming individual male persons are masculine. *nauta, ae*, a sailor, masculine. (Sailors are usually men.)
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*32. The 1st Declension: Masculine*
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*[The First Declension.]* *[Gender:]* b. All others are feminine. *terra, ae*, land, feminine.
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*33. The 1st Declension: Feminine*
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All nouns whose genitive singular ends in *-ī* belong to the second declension.
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Text, pg 17 *-ī Nouns = 2nd Declension*
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*Masculine Nouns of the Second Declension.* *---------------- SINGULAR -----------------* *____Form ___ Meaning ___(Use)* Nom. - *serv-us* = the slave *(S)* Gen. - *serv-ī* = of the slave, the slave's *(P)* Dat. - *serv-ō* = to or for the slave *(IO)* Acc. - *serv-um* = the slave *(DO)* Abl. - *serv-ō* = by, with from the slave *(OPr)* *----------------- PLURAL --------------------* *____ Form ___ Meaning ___(Use)* Nom. - *serv-ī* = the slaves *(S)* Gen. - *serv-ōrum* = of the slaves, the slaves *(P)* Dat. - *serv-īs* = to or for the slaves *(IO)* Acc. - *serv-ōs* = the slaves *(DO)* Abl. - *serv-īs* = by, with from the slaves *(OPr)*
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*34. Masculine Nouns of the 2nd Declension (-us Nominative Nouns Declined Like servus)*
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*[Masculine Nouns of the Second Declension.]* *Gender:* generally masculine
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*35. Masculine Nouns of the 2nd Declension = Generally Masculine*
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*[Masculine Nouns of the Second Declension.]* *Note:* Proper names in *-ius* and *fīlius*, son, form their vocative singular in *-ī. Vergilius, Vergilī; fīlius, fīlī*.
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*36. Masculine Nouns of the 2nd Declension Note: Vocative*
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All words of the second declension whose nominative ends in *-um* are neuter and are declined like *bellum*.
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Text, pg 20 *2nd Declension -um Nominative Nouns Declined Like bellum*
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*Neuter Nouns of the Second Declension.* *--------------- SINGULAR ------------------* *____Form ___ Meaning ___(Use)* Nom. - *bell-um* = the war *(S)* Gen. - *bell-ī* = of the war *(P)* Dat. - *bell-ō* = to or for the war *(IO)* Acc. - *bell-um* = the war *(DO)* Abl. - *bell-ō* = by, with from the war *(OPr)* *----------------- PLURAL --------------------* *____ Form ___ Meaning ___(Use)* Nom. - *bell-a* = the wars *(S)* Gen. - *bell-ōrum* = of the wars *(P)* Dat. - *bell-īs* = to or for the wars *(IO)* Acc. - *bell-a* = the wars *(DO)* Abl. - *bell-īs* = by, with from the wars *(OPr)*
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*37. Neuter Nouns of the 2nd Declension: bellum*
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*[Neuter Nouns of the Second Declension.]* *Gender:* All Neuter (there are no exceptions)
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*38. Neuter Nouns of the 2nd Declension: All Neuter*
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*[Second Declension Nouns.]* *Note:* The accusative is like the nominative in all neuter nouns and adjectives.Thus, singular nom. *bellum*, acc. *bellum*; plural nom. *bella*, acc. *bella* (Cf. *flūmen*, No. 64, *gravis, e*, No. 78, etc.)
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*39. 2nd Declension Nouns Note: Accusative*
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*[Second Declension Nouns.]* *Vir, virī*, man, and words like *ager, agrī*, field, and *puer, puerī*, boy, belong to the 2nd declension. (Note: the genitive in -ī.) They are declined like *servus* except in the nominative (and vocative) singular. Thus see 41, 42, 43.
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*40. 2nd Declension Nouns: vir/virī, ager/agrī, puer/puerī*
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*[Second Declension Nouns.]* vir vir-ī vir-ō vir-um vir-ō vir-ī vir-ōrum vir-īs vir-ōs vir-īs
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*41. 2nd Declension: vir, virī*
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*[Second Declension Nouns.]* ager agr-ī agr-ō agr-um agr-ō agr-ī agr-ōrum agr-īs agr-ōs agr-īs
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*42. 2nd Declension: ager, agrī*
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*[Second Declension Nouns.]* puer puer-ī puer-ō puer-um puer-ō puer-ī puer-ōrum puer-īs puer-ōs puer-īs
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*43. 2nd Declension: puer, puerī*
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*[Second Declension Nouns.]* *Deus, ī* (God) shows peculiarities in the underlined forms. The vocative singular is *Deus*. ---------Singular------Plural Nom. *deus ----------dī (deī, diī)* Gen. *deī -------------deōrum (deūm)* Dat. *deō -------------dīs (deīs, diīs)* Acc. *deum ----------deōs* Abl. *deō -------------dīs (deīs, diīs)*
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*44. 2nd Declension: Deus*
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*The Third Declension.* The nominative singular of the third declension has no model ending. Thus *lēx*, law, *pars*, part, *flūmen*, river, *hostis*, enemy, are all nouns of the third declension. The genitive ending (for the third declension, always *-is*) shows the declension and gives the stem.
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*45. The 3rd Declension*
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*[The Third Declension.]* *Gender:* Nouns naming individual male persons are masculine: *mīles, mīlitis, m.*, soldier
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*46. The 3rd Declension: Masculine*
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*[The Third Declension.]* *[Gender:]* Nouns naming individual female persons are feminine: *māter, mātris, f.*, mother
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*47. The 3rd Declension: Feminine*
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*[The Third Declension.]* *Note:* These two rules (#46, 47) should always be applied before # 49 to 52. Thus *mīles* would be feminine by the SOX rule (#50), but rule #46 is applied first, hence *mīles* is masculine.
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*48. The 3rd Declension Note: Order of Rules*
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*[The Third Declension.]* *[Gender:]* Nouns ending in *-er, -or (ERROR)* are masculine.
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*49. The 3rd Declension: -er, -or Nouns (m.)*
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*[The Third Declension.]* *[Gender:]* Nouns ending in *-s, -o, -x (SOX)* are feminine.
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*50. The 3rd Declension: -s, -o, -x Nouns (f.)*
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*[The Third Declension.]* *[Gender:]* Nouns ending in *-l, -a, -n, -c, -e, -t (LANCET)* are neuter.
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*51.The 3rd Declension: -l, -a, -n, -c, -e, -t Nouns (n.)*
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*[The Third Declension.]* *[Gender:]* *Note:* But masculīnī generis are words in *-os, -nis, -guis, and -cis*, in *-es, (-itis)*, and *-ex (icis)*; as neuter mark the *-us* (with *-ris*)
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*52. The 3rd Declension Note*
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*[The Third Declension.]* *Declension.* First find the gender of the noun. Then find the stem from the genitive.
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*53. The 3rd Declension: Gender/Stem*
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*[The Third Declension.]* *[Declension.]* For masculine and feminine nouns, add the endings of *lēx* or *pars* according to the rules in #59-63.
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*54. The 3rd Declension: Masculine and Feminine Noun Endings*
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*[The Third Declension.]* *[Declension.]* For neuter nouns add the ending s of *flūmen*.
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*55. The 3rd Declension: Neuter Noun Endings*
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*[The Third Declension.]* *[Declension.]* The vocative is always like the nominative.
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*56. The 3rd Declension: Vocative*
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Rule: The subject of a finite verb is in the nominative case.
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Text, pg 10(a) *Nominative: Subject*
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Rule: A finite verb agrees with its subject in number (and person).
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Text, pg 10(b) *Verb Agreement*
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Rule: The direct object of a transitive verb is in the accusative case.
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Text, pg 13 *Accusative: DO*
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Rule: The verb usually stands *last* in the sentence.
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Text, pg 14 *Verb is Last*
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Rule: Adverbs usually stand *immediately before* the word they modify.
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Text, pg 15 *Adverbs*
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Rule: The possessive case and many English *of* phrases are translated by the genitive.
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Text, pg 16 *Genitive: Possessive*
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Hint: in *all neuter* nouns and adjectives the accusative is always like the nominative.
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Text, pg 21 *All Neuter Nouns & Adjectives: Accusative=Nominative*
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Rule: The indirect object is put in the dative case.
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Text, pg 22 *Dative: IO*
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In Latin some prepositions are followed by the ablative case, some by the accusative case.
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Text, pg 24 *Prepositions*
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*All nouns whose genitive singular ends in -is belong to the third declension*
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Text, pg 35 *Genitive singular -is = 3rd declension*
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*Masculine and Femine Nouns of the Third Declension.* *--------------- SINGULAR ------------------* *____Form ___ Meaning ___(Use)* Nom. - *lēx* = the law *(S)* Gen. - *lēg-is* = of the law *(P)* Dat. - *lēg-ī* = to or for the law *(IO)* Acc. - *lēg-em* = the law *(DO)* Abl. - *lēg-e* = by, with from the law *(OPr)* *----------------- PLURAL --------------------* *____ Form ___ Meaning ___(Use)* Nom. - *lēg-ēs* = the laws *(S)* Gen. - *lēg-um* = of the laws *(P)* Dat. - *lēg-ibus* = to or for the laws *(IO)* Acc. - *lēg-ēs* = the laws *(DO)* Abl. - *lēg-ibus* = by, with from the laws *(OPr)*
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*57. 3rd Declension: lēx (F.)*
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*Masculine and Femine Nouns of the Third Declension.* *--------------- SINGULAR ------------------* *____Form ___ Meaning ___(Use)* Nom. - *pars* = the part *(S)* Gen. - *part-is* = of the part *(P)* Dat. - *part-ī* = to or for the part *(IO)* Acc. - *part-em* = the part *(DO)* Abl. - *part-e* = by, with from the part *(OPr)* *----------------- PLURAL --------------------* *____ Form ___ Meaning ___(Use)* Nom. - *part-ēs* = the parts *(S)* Gen. - *part-ium* = of the parts *(P)* Dat. - *part-ibus* = to or for the parts *(IO)* Acc. - *part-ēs* = the parts *(DO)* Abl. - *part-ibus* = by, with from the parts *(OPr)*
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*58. 3rd Declension: pars*
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[M. and F. Nouns of the Third Declension] *Note* All masculine and feminine nouns of the third declension are declined like *lēx* except the following nouns which have -ium in the genitive plural like *part-ium:*
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*59. M. and F. Nouns of the 3rd Declension Note*
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[M. and F. Nouns of the Third Declension] [Note] 1. Nouns that have the same number of syllables in the genitive singular as in the nominative singular, as: *hostis, hostis (host-ium)*, enemy
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*60. M. and F. Nouns of the 3rd Declension (Declined like lēx except those w/ genitive plural -ium)*
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[M. and F. Nouns of the Third Declension] [Note] 2. Nouns whose stem ends in two consonants, as: *gēns, gentis*, tribe, stem *gent-*, hense *gentium*.
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*61. M. and F. Nouns of the 3rd Declension (Declined like lēx except those w/ genitive plural -ium)*
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[M. and F. Nouns of the Third Declension] [Note] *Exceptions* a. With *-um* instead of *-ium: senum, patrum, mēnsum, mātrum, canum, juvenum, and frātrum.*
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*62. M. and F. Nouns of the 3rd Declension (Declined like lēx except those w/ genitive plural -ium: Exceptions*
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[M. and F. Nouns of the Third Declension] [Note] *Exceptions* b. With *-ium* instead of *-um: vīrium, lītium, faucium, Penātium, imbrium, and nivium, Samnītium, optimātium*
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*63. M. and F. Nouns of the 3rd Declension (Declined like lēx except those w/ genitive plural -ium: Exceptions*
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*Neuter Nouns of the Third Declension.* *--------------- SINGULAR ------------------* *____Form ___ Meaning ___(Use)* Nom. - *flūmen* = the river *(S)* Gen. - *flūmin-is* = of the river *(P)* Dat. - *flūmin-ī* = to or for the river *(IO)* Acc. - *flūmen* = the river *(DO)* Abl. - *flūmin-e* = by, with from the river *(OPr)* *----------------- PLURAL --------------------* *____ Form ___ Meaning ___(Use)* Nom. - *flūmin-a* = the rivers *(S)* Gen. - *flūmin-um* = of the rivers *(P)* Dat. - *flūmin-ibus* = to or for the rivers *(IO)* Acc. - *flūmin-a* = the rivers *(DO)* Abl. - *flūmin-ibus* = by, with from the rivers *(OPr)*
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*64. Neuter Nouns of the 3rd Declension: flūmen*
