BIO 210 – FINAL EXAM REVIEW – Flashcards
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Anatomy
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the study of structure
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Physiology
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the study of function
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Metabolism
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all the chemical reactions that happen in our body cells
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Catabolism
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the breakdown of complex molecules into simpler ones. Catabolic reaction
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Anabolism
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The building up of complex molecules from simpler ones
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Levels of Structural Organization
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Atom (chemical), Molecule (chemical), Cell tissue, Organ, Organ System, Organism
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Homeostasis
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The maintenance of the internal environment regardless of external conditions
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Negative feedback mechanism
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Most feedback mechanisms are this type - regulating body temperature, blood pressure, blood glucose
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Cranial Cavity
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Brain and spinal cord
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vertebral cavity
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spinal cord
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thoracic cavity
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heart and lungs
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abdominopelvic cavity
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stoach digestive organs
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parietal membrane
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lines cavity wall
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visceral membrane
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lines the organs surface
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ATP
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a form of energy used by all reactions in cells. Made in the mitochondria
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4 elements that make up 96% of the human body
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Oxygen, hydrogen, carbon and nitrogen
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atomic number
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number of protons. Always the same as the number of electrons
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Atomic mass
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decimal number - number of protons and neutrons together - if you subtract the protons you get the number of neutrons
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ionic bonds
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the transfer of one or more electrons
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anion
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negative charge - gains one electron
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cation
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positive charge - loses one electron
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covalent bond
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shared electrons
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2 types of covalent bonds
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Polar - unequal sharing of electrons Nonpolar - equal sharing of electrons
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PH
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Acid base concentration - homeostasis of acid base balance is regulated by chemicals called buffers
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buffers
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acccept hydrogen ions when PH is high and donates when the PH is low
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Carbohydrates - organic compound
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fructose, glycogen
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Protiens - organic compound
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amino acids and enzymes
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Lipids - organic compound
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triglycerides, cholesterol
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Nucleic acids - organic compound
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DNA, RNA
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DNA nitrogenous bases
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Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, Thymine (AGCT)
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RNA nitrogenous bases
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Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, Uracil (AGSU)
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Plasma Membrane
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Phospholipid bilayer composed of hydrophilic (phosphate) heads and hydrophobic (lipid) tails
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Resting membrane potential
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maintained by sodium potassium pump (active transport) - takes 3 sodium out and 2 potassium in
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K+ Potassium
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10 times higher inside the cell - major intracellular cation
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Na+ Sodium
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10 times higher outside the cell - major extracellular cation
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passive transport - osmosis
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Movement of water. Water follows salt, thats what makes it move
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Hypotonic solution
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cells lyse/burst
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Isotonic solution
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no change
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Hypertonic solution
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cell shrink
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cell cycle
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before a cell can divide, it's DNA has to be replicated exactly
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3 stages of interphase
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G1 - Growth and metabolism S - DNA replication G2 - Preparation for division
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Cell Division - Mitosis
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4 Phases Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase
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Prophase
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chromosomes appear
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Metaphase
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chromosomes cluster in the middle
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Anaphase
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daughter chromosomes appear
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Telophase
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identical sets of chromosomes at opposite poles; cleavage furrow
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Cytokinesis
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complete division of the cell
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Protein synthesis - Transcription
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DNA's information is encoded by a codon in mRNA. Happens in the nucleus
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Protein synthesis - Translation
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Information carried by the mRNAis decoded by an anticodon and used to assemble polypeptides. Happens in the cytosol/ribosome
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Tissues
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Groups of cells similar in structure that perform a specific function
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Epithelial Tissue
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a sheet of cells that cover a body surface or lines a cavity
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Connective Tissue (CT)
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CT Proper - fibroblasts Cartilage - chondrocytes Bone - Osteocytes Blood - erythrocytes and leukocytes and platelets
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Muscle tissue
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skeletal muscle Cardiac muscle smooth muscle
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nervous tissue
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neurons neuroglia
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Glandular epithelia - Endocrine
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ductless glands that secrete directly into the bloodstream. Product does not leave the body (hormones)
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Glandular epithelia - exocrine
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secrete their products through ducts onto body surfaces - the EXit the body. Sebaceous (oil) glands nd sudiferous (sweat) glands
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3 regions of the skin
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epidermis (outermost) dermis (vascular layer) hypodermis - subcutaneous
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5 cell layers of the epidermis
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stratum corneum - keratinized - waterproof sloughs off cells are dead stratum lucidum - only in thick skin - soles of feet and palms of hands - cells are dead here stratum granulosum - keratinization begins here stratum spinosum - tension resisting bundles of pre-keratin filaments stratum basale - actively mitotic stem cells
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Sweat Glands
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sudiferous - secrete sweat into and through the glands duct system to the skin surface
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Oil Glands
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sebaceous - oil glands that secrete sebum to the skin and hair. Help prevent from drying out.
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Skin Cancer
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Basal Cell Carcinoma Squamous Cell carcinoma Melanoma
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Diaphysis
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The shaft
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Epiphysis
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Bone ends covered with an articular surface
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Endosteum
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Covers internal bone surface - just like periosteum but inside
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Periosteum
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white double layered membrane covering the external bone surface
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2 layers of periosteum
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Fibrous Layer - Outer layer dense irregular CT Osteogenic Layer - Inner layer containing osteoblasts (which secrete bone matrix, Osteoclast (bone destroying cells) and Osteogenic stem cells (give rise to osteoblasts)
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Lamella
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Each individual Matrix tube
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Osteon
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the structural and functional unit of compact bone
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Canaliculi
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connect all the osteocytes together to deliver nutrients
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Intramembranous ossification
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forms the cranial bones of the skull. Bones develop from fibrous membranes
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endochondral ossification
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forms all bones of the skeleton below the base of the skull bones except the clavicles. They develop form cartilage
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PTH
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activates osteoclasts - breaks down to raise blood calcium levels
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Calcitonin
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helps to lower blood calcium levels by having bones reabsorb calcium
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The skeleton
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206 bones divided into 2 groups
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Axial
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Includes bones of the skull, vertebral column and rib cage
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Appendicular
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upper and lower limbs and girdles
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pectoral girdle
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clavicle and scapula
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pelvic girdle
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2 coxal (hip) bones
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axial - cervical vertebrae
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C1 - Atlas C2 - Axis (dens)
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Appendicular - Forearm
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Radius Ulna Olecranon process (elbow)
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Hyoid Bone
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Unique because it does not articulate with any other bone inthe body
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Synarthroses
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Immoveable joints - ex/ sutures, gomphoses (fibrous joints)
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Synchondroses
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(cartilaginous) - also immoveable
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Amphiarthroses
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slightly moveable ex) syndesmoses (fibrous) symphesis (cartilaginous)
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Diarthroses
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Freely moveable joints ex) ball and socket, hinge joints, pivot, plane, saddle (synovial)
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flexion
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decrease the angle of a joint (contracting the biceps in the arm)
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extension
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increase the angle of a joint (triceps contracting as teh elbow is extending)
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adduction
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limbs move away from the midline of the body
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abduction
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limb moves toward the midline of the body
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Bursae
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fibrous sac containing synovial fluid located between the bones and tendons to reduce friction during movement
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tendon sheath
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elongated bursae - wraps completely around the tendon
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3 types of muscle tissue
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skeletal cardiac smooth
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smooth muscle tissue
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not striated, involuntary, visceral
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cardiac muscle tissue
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striated, involuntary, branched, intercalated disks
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skeletal muscle tissue
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striated voluntary
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Perimysium and Fasicles
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within each skeletal muscle the muscle fibers are grouped into fascicles (bundles) that resemble bundles of sticks
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perimysium
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surrounding each fasicle is a layer of fibrous connective tissue called perimysium
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Acetylcholine (ACh)
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neurotransmitter released at the neuromuscular junction, depolarizes the muscle cell
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troponin
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calcium binding protien of the thin filament
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tropomyosin
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covers myosin binding site on actin
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actin
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thin filaments, I band, light colored
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myosin
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thick filaments, A band, dark colored
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sarcoplasmic reticulum
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stores calcium and releases it on demand
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cross bridge
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when myosin heads pull thin filaments in toward the center of the sarcomere (A band); i.e. the sliding filament theory
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motor unit
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the motor neuron and all the muscles it supplies
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A band
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shortens when the muscle contracts
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what happens when calcium shows up?
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contraction
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muscle insertion
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attached to moveable bone
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muscle origin
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attached to immoveable bone
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neurons
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nerve cells
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neuroglia
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nerve supporting cells
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astrocytes (CNS)
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mainatin the environment
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oligodendrites (CNS)
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make the myelin sheath
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microglia (CNS)
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Phagocytosis
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ependymal cells (CNS)
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lines cavities produces CSF
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Satellite cells (PNS)
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maintain the environment
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Schwann cells (PNS)
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make the myelin sheath
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Factors the increase nerve conduction
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Myelin Sheath increase the velocity of an action potential Diameter of the axon - bigger is faster Temperature - hotter is faster
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Action Potential
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Graded potential is below threshold When NA+ enters cell - depolarization occurs When K+ exits teh cell repolarization occurs K+ continues to exit the cell and it becomes hyperpolarized Sodium potasium pump brings it back to RMP. It is an active transport process because it requires ATP to function.
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Cerebrum
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2 cerebral hemispheres and 2 lateral ventricles
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Diancephalon
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thalamus, hypothalamus and epithalamus and 3rd ventricle
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Brain Stem
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midbrain (cerebral aqueduct), pons and medulla oblongota (both are associated with teh 4th ventricle
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Cerebellum
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4th ventricle
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medulla oblongata
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vital reflex center - heart rate, respiration - a back up for the hypothalamus which is the autonomic nervous system control center.
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Meninges
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Dura Mater, Arachnoid Mater, Pia Mater
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Blood Brain Barrier
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semi-permeable membrane - alcohol and some lipid solubles go through it. Tight junctions - hard to permeate
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Cerebrospinal Fluid
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Chroroid Plexuses hang from the roofs of the ventricles to produce it.
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Functions of CSF
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Bouyancy - forms a liquid cushion nourishes the brain and spinal cord
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Location of CSF
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Ventricles central canal of the spinal cord subarachnoid space of the brain and spinal cord
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Photoreceptors
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respond to light
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thermoreceptors
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respond to temp
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chemoreceptors
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respond to blood pressure
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Reflex Arc Pathway
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1. receptor - site of stimulus 2. sensory neuron - afferent dorsal root integration center - brain and interneurons in the spinal cord 3. integration center 4. Motor Neuron 5. Effector - Muscle or Gland
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Cranial and Spinal nerves
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7, 9, 10 Taste food going in VII - facial nerve IX - glossopharangeal nerve X - vagus nerve - motor and sensory - taste; ANS to cardiac and digestive organs and glands of the ventral body cavity
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Cranial and Spinal nerves
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3, 4, and 6 make eyes do tricks III - Oculomotor IV - Trochlear VI - Abducens
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Major spinal nerves associated with nerve plexuses
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Phrenic - diaphragm Radial - arm femoral - abdominal wall and thigh Sciatic - gluteal region and lower leg
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2 divisions of the ANS
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Somatic - Skeletal Muscle ANS - smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands 2 regions of ANS - parasympathetic nervous system and sympathetic nervous system
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Parasympathetic Nervous System
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Rest and Digest Increase GI Motility Craniosacral Division Receptors pre and post ganglion are Cholinergic (acetylcholine)
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Sympathetic Nervous System
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Fight or Flight Increased heart rate thoracolumbar division receptor is ACh preganglion and NE postganglion Post is Adrenergic - Norepinepherine
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Vision
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2 types of receptors Rods Cones
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Rods
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Dim light - shades of gray
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Cones
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for color detail
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Visual Pathway
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1. Photoreceptor cells (rods/cones) 2. Bipolar Cells 3. Ganglion Cells 4. Axon of ganglion cell exits 5. Optic Disk 6. Optic Nerve 7. Optic Chiasma 8. Optic Tract 9. Thalamus 10. Occipital Lobe
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lens
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accomodation for vision - ciliary muscles contract to bulge the lens
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iris
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allows the pupil to constrict or dilate
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cornea
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bends light entering the eye
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Laters of the eye: 3 tunics
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fibrous - sclera and cornea Vascular - choroid, iris, and ciliary body Sensory - retina
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Hearing structures - middle ear
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tympanic membrane malleus, Incus, Stapes, (ear ossicles) Pharyngotympanic Tube/Auditory Tube
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Equilibrium
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Inner ear - Cranial Nerve VIII
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Static Equilibrium
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detected in maculae in vestibule of inner ear
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Dynamic Equilibrium
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detected in crista ampularis in semicircular canals
