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Niccolo Machiavelli

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author of The Prince (16th century); emphasized realistic discussions of how to seize and maintain power; one of the most influential authors of Italian Renaissance

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humanism

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focus on humankind as center of intellectual and artistic endeavor; method of study that emphasized the superiority of classical forms over medieval styles, in particular the study of ancient languages

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Northern Renaissance

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cultural and intellectual movement of northern Europe; began later than Italian Renaissance circa 1450 [Italian Renaissance began circa 1400]; centered in France, Low Countries, England, and Germany; featured greater emphasis on religion than Italian Renaissance

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(Italian) Renaissance

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cultural and political movement in western Europe; began in Italy circa 1400; rested on urban vitality and expanding commerce; featured a literature and art with distinctly more secular priorities than those of the Middle Ages

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Francis I

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king of France in the 16th century; regarded as Renaissance monarch; patron of arts; imposed new controls on Catholic church; ally of Ottoman sultan against Holy Roman Emperor

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Johannes Gutenberg

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introduced movable type to western Europe in 15th century; credited with greatly expanded availability of printed books and pamphlets

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European-style family

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originated in 15th century among peasants and artisans of western Europe, featuring late marriage age, emphasis on the nuclear family, and a large minority who never married

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nuclear family

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family group consisting of a mother and father and all their children, contrasting to the extended families characteristic of most agricultural civilizations

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Martin Luther

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German monk; initiated Protestant Reformation in 1517 by nailing 95 theses to door of Wittenberg church; emphasized primacy of faith over works stressed in Catholic church; accepted state control of church

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Protestantism

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general wave of religious dissent against Catholic church; generally held to have begun with Martin Luther's attack on Catholic beliefs in 1517; included many varieties of religious beliefs

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Anglican church

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form of Protestantism set up in England after 1534; established by Henry VIII with himself as head, at least in part to obtain a divorce from his first wife; became increasingly Protestant following Henry's death

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Jean Calvin

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French Protestant (16th century) who stressed doctrine of predestination; established center of his group at Swiss canton of Geneva; encouraged ideas of wider access to government, wider public education; Calvinism spread from Switzerland to northern Europe to North America

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predestination

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prior determination of those who would be saved [by God]; Calvinism insisted on God's predestination (prior determination) of those who would be saved

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Catholic Reformation

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restatement of original Catholic beliefs in response in response to Protestant Reformation (16th century); established councils that revived Catholic doctrine and refuted Protestant beliefs

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Jesuits

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a new religious order founded during the Catholic Reformation; active in politics, education, and missionary work [regained some parts of Europe for the church]; sponsored missions to South America, North America, and Asia

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edict of Nantes

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grant of tolerance to Protestants in France in 1598; granted only after lengthy civil war between Catholic and Protestant factions [faction- a group of people forming a minority within a larger body, especially a dissentious group]

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Thirty Years' War

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war within the Holy Roman Empire between German Protestants and their allies (Sweden, Denmark, France) and [against] the emperor and his ally, Spain; ended in 1648 after great destruction with the Treaty of Westphalia; lasted from 1618-1648

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Treaty of Westphalia

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ended Thirty Years' War in 1648; granted right to individual rulers within the Holy Roman Empire to choose their own religion-either Protestant or Catholic

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English Civil War

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conflict from 1640-1660; featured religious disputes mixed with constitutional issues concerning the powers of the monarchy; ended with restoration of the monarchy in 1660 following execution of previous king

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proletariat

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class of working people without access to producing property; typically manufacturing workers, paid laborers in agricultural economy, or urban poor; in Europe, [it was a] product of economic changes of 16th and 17th centuries

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witchcraft persecution

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reflected new resentments against the poor (who were often accused of witchcraft by communities unwilling to accept responsibility for their poverty); resulted in death of over 100,000 Europeans between 1590 and 1650; particularly common in Protestant areas; unprecedented outburst against suspected witches arose in various parts of western Europe and also in New England (located in North America)

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Scientific Revolution

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culminated in 17th century; period of empirical advance associated with the development of wider theoretical generalizations; resulted in change in traditional beliefs of Middle Ages

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Copernicus

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Polish monk and astronomer (16th century); disproved Hellenistic belief that the Earth was at the center of the universe

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Galileo

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published Copernicus' findings (17th century); added own discoveries concerning laws of gravity and planetary motion; condemned by the Catholic church for his work

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William Harvey

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English physician (17th century) who demonstrated circular movement of blood in animals, [and the] function of heart as [a] pump

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René Descartes

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established importance of skeptical review of all received wisdom (17th century); argued that human reason could then develop laws that would explain the fundamental workings of nature

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Isaac Newton

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English scientist during the 17th century; author of Principia; drew the various astronomical and physical observations and wider theories together in a neat framework of natural laws; established principles of motion; defined forces of gravity

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Deism

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concept of God current during the Scientific Revolution; role of divinity was to set natural laws in motion, not to regulate [it] once process was begun

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John Locke

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English philosopher during 17th century; argued that people could learn everything through [the] senses and reason; argued that power of government came from the people, not divine right of kings; offered possibility of revolution to overthrow tyrants

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absolute monarchy

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concept of government during rise of nation-states in western Europe during the 17th century; featured monarchs who passed laws without parliaments, appointed professionalized armies and bureaucracies, established state churches, imposed state economic policies

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Louis XIV

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French monarch of the late 17th century who personalized absolute monarchy

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[mercantilism]

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economic theory that stressed governments' promotion of limitation of imports from other nations and internal economies in order to improve tax revenues; popular during 17th and 18th centuries in Europe

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Glorious Revolution

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English overthrow of James II in 1688; resulted in affirmation of parliament as having basic sovereignty over the king

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parliamentary monarchy

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originated in England and Holland, 17th century, with kings partially checked by significant legislative powers in parliaments

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Frederick the Great

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Prussian king of the 18th century; attempted to introduce Enlightenment reforms into Germany; built on military and bureaucratic foundations of his predecessors; introduced freedom of religion; increased state control of economy

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Enlightenment

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intellectual movement centered in France during the 18th century; featured scientific advance, application of scientific methods to study of human society; belief that rational laws could describe social behavior

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Adam Smith

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established liberal economics (Wealth of Nations [book], 1776); argued that government should avoid regulation of economy in favor of the operation of market forces

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Mary Wollstonecraft

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Enlightenment feminist thinker in England; argued that new political rights should extend to women

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