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government

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The institutions and processes through which public policies are made for a society.

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public goods

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Goods, such as clean air and clean water, that everyone must share.

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politics

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The process by which we select our governmental leaders and what policies these leaders pursue. It produces authoritative decisions about public issues.

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political participation

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All the activities used by citizens to influence the selection of political leaders or the policies they pursue. Voting is the most common but not the only means in a democracy. Other means include protest and civil disobedience.

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single-issue groups

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Groups that have a narrow interest, tend to dislike compromise, and often draw membership from people new to politics. These features distinguish them from traditional interest groups.

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policymaking system

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The process by which policy comes into being and evolves over time. People's interests, problems, and concerns create political issues for government policymakers. These issues shape policy, which in turn impacts people, generating more interests, problems, and concerns.

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linkage institutions

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The political channels through which people's concerns become political issues on policy agenda. In the United States, these include elections, political parties, interest groups, and the media.

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policy agenda

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The issues that attract the serious attention of public officials and other people actually involved in politics at any given point in time.

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political issue

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An issue that arises when people disagree about a problem and how to fix it.

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policymaking institutions

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The branches of government charged with taking action on political issues. The U.S. Constitution established three branches - the Congress, the presidency, and the courts. Today, the power of the bureaucracy is so great that most political scientists consider it a fourth policymaking institution.

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public policy

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A choice that government makes in response to a political issue. A policy is a course of action taken with regard to some problem.

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democracy

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A system of selecting policymakers and of organizing government so that policy represents and responds to the public's preferences.

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majority rule

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A fundamental principle of traditional democratic theory. In a democracy, choosing among alternatives requires that the majority's desire be respected.

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minority rights

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A principle of traditional democratic theory that guarantees rights to those who do not belong to majorities and allows that they might join majorities through persuasion and reasoned argument.

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representation

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A basic principle of traditional democratic theory that describes the relationship between the few leaders and the many followers.

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pluralist theory

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A theory of government and politics emphasizing that politics is mainly a competition among groups, each one pressing for its own preferred policies.

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elite and class theory

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A theory of government and politics contending that societies are divided along class lines and that an upper-class elite will rule, regardless of the formal niceties of governmental organization.

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hyperpluralism

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A theory of government and politics contending that groups are so strong that government is weakened. It is an extreme, exaggerated, or perverted form of pluralism.

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policy gridlock

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A condition that occurs when no coalition is strong enough to form a majority and establish policy. The result is that nothing may get done.

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gross domestic product

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The sum total of the value of all the goods and services produced in a nation.

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individualism

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The belief that individuals should be left on their own by the government. One of the primary reasons for the comparatively small scope of American government is the prominence of this belief in American political thought and practice.

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constitution

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A nation's basic law. It creates political instituitions, assigns or divides powers in government, and often provides certain guarantees to citizens. Can be either written or unwritten.

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Declaration of Independence

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The document approved by representatives of the American colonies in 1776 that stated their grievances against the British monarch and declared their independence.

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natural rights

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Rights inherent in human beings, not dependent on governments, which include life, liberty, and property. This concept was central to English philosopher John Locke's theories about government and was widely accepted among America's Founding Fathers.

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consent of the governed

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The idea that government derives its authority by sanction of the people.

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limited government

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The idea that certain restrictions should be placed on government to protect the natural rights of citizens.

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Articles of Confederation

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The first constitution of the United States, adopted by Congress in 1777 and enacted in 1781. It established a national legislature, the Continental Congress, but most authority rested with the state legislatures.

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Shays' Rebellion

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A series of attacks on courthouses by a small band of farmers led by Revolutionary War Captain Daniel Shays to block foreclosure proceedings.

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U.S. Constitution

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The document written in 1787 and ratified in 1788 that sets forth the institutional structure of U.S. government and the tasks these institutions perform. It replaced the Articles of Confederation.

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factions

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Interest groups arising from the unequal distribution of property or wealth that James Madison attacked in Federalist Paper No. 10. Today's parties or interest groups are what Madison had in mind when he warned of the instability in government caused by these.

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New Jersey Plan

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The proposal at the Constitutional Convention that called for equal representation of each state in Congress regardless of the state's population.

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Virginia Plan

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The proposal at the Constitutional Convention that called for representation of each state in Congress in proportion to that state's share of the U.S. population.

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Connecticut Compromise

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The compromise reached at the Constitutional Convention that established two houses of Congress: the House of Representatives, in which representation is based on a state's share of the U.S. population, and the Senate, in which each state has two representatives.

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writ of habeas corpus

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A court order requiring jailers to explain to a judge why they are holding a prisoner in custody.

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separation of powers

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A feature of the Constitution that requires each of the three branches of government—executive, legislative, and judicial—to be relatively independent of the others so that one cannot control the others. Power is shared among these three institutions.

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checks and balances

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Features of the Constitution that limit government's power by requiring that power be balanced among the different governmental institutions. These institutions continually constrain one another's activities.

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republic

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A form of government in which the people select representatives to govern them and make laws.

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Federalists

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Supporters of the U.S. Constitution at the time the states were contemplating its adoption.

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Anti-Federalists

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Opponents of the American Constitution at the time when the states were contemplating its adoption.

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Federalist Papers

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A collection of 85 articles written by Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, and James Madison under the name "Publius" to defend the Constitution in detail.

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Equal Rights Amendment

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A constitutional amendment passed by Congress in 1972 stating that "equality of rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state on account of sex." The amendment failed to acrquire the necessary support from three-fourths of the state legislatures.

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Marbury vs. Madison

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The 1803 case in which Chief Justice John Marshall and his associates first asserted the right of the Supreme Court to determine the meaning of the U.S. Constitution. The decision established the Court's power of judicial review over acts of Congress, in this case the Judiciary Act of 1789.

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Bill of Rights

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The first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution, drafted in response to some of the Anti-Federalist concerns. These amendments define such basic liberties such as freedom of religion, speech, and press and guarantee defendants' rights.

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judicial review

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The power of the courts to determine whether acts of Congress, and by implication its executive, are in accord with the U.S. Constitution. Established by John Marshall and his associates in Marbury v. Madison.

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Bill of attainder

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A law declaring act illegal without a judicial trial

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block grant

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Broad grant with few strings attached;given to states by the federal government for specified activities, such as secondary education or health services.

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categorical grant

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Grant for which Congress appropriates funds for s specific purpose

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concurrent powers

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powers that are shared by both the federal and state governments that may be exercised concurrently as long as that power is not exclusively within the scope of national power or in conflict with national law

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confederation

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Type of government where the national government derives its powers from the states; a league of independent states

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cooperative federalism

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The relationship between the national and state governments that began with the New Deal. State and federal gov work together to solve problems Broadly interpret Elastic Clause.

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dual federalism

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The belief that having separate and equally powerful levels of government is the best arrangement. (1789-1932-interpretation) "layer cake federalism" each level of gov separate form the other; national gov has authority over national matters; state over state matters. fed gov limited to enumerated powers

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enumerated powers

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Seventeen specific powers granted to the Congress under Article I, section 8, of the U>S> Constitution; these powers include taxation, coinage of money, regulation of commerce, and authority to provide for a national defense

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ex post facto law

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Law passed after the fact, thereby making previously legal activity illegal and subject to current penalty; prohibited by the U.S. Constitution

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extradition clause

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Part of Article IV that require states to extradite, or return, criminals to states where they have been convicted or are to stand trial

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federal system

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System of government where the national government and state governments share some powers, derive all authority form the people, and the powers of the national government are specified in the U.S. Constitution.

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full faith and credit clause

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Section of Article IV of the Constitution that ensures judicial decrees and contracts made in one state will be binding in any other state

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Gibbons v. Ogden (1824)

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The Supreme Court upheld broad congressional power to regulate interstate commerce. The Court's broad interpretation of the Constitution's commerce clause paved the way for later rulings upholding expansive federal powers.

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implied powers

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Powers derived from enumerated powers and teh necessary and proper clause. These powers are not stated specifically but are considered to be reasonable implied through the exercise of delegated powers.

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interstate compacts

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Compacts between states that carry the force of law; generally now used as a tool to address multisite policy concerns

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McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)

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The Supreme Court upheld the power of the national government and denied the right of a state to tax the federal bank using the Constitution's supremacy clause. The Court's broad interpretation of the necessary and proper clause paved the way for later rulings upholding expansive federal powers.

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necessary and proper clause

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The final paragraph of Article I, section 8, of the Constitution which gives Congress the authority to pass all laws "necessary and proper" to carry out the enumerated powers specified in the Constitution; also called the elastic clause

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New federalism

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Federal/state relationship proposed by Reagan administration during the 1980's; hallmark is returning administrative powers to the state of government. Power flowed back to states.

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preemption

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A concept derived from the Constitution's supremacy clause that allows the national government to override or preempt state or local actions in certain areas

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privileges and immunities law

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Part of Article IV of the Constitution guaranteeing that citizens of each state are afforded the same rights as citizens of all other states

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reserve ( or police) powers

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Powers reserved to the states by the Tenth Amendment that lie at the foundation of a state's right to legislate for the public health and welfare of its citizens

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Tenth Amendment

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The final part of the Bill of Rights that defines the basic principle of American federalism in stating: " The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the STates respectively, or to the people."

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Sixteenth Amendment

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Authorized Congress to enact a national income tax

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Seventeenth Amendment

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Made senators directly elected by the people, removed their selection for the state legislatures.

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sovereign immunity

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The right of a state to be free from lawsuit unless it gives permission to the suit. Under the Eleventh Amendment, all states are considered sovereign.

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supremacy clause

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Portion of Article VI of the Constitution mandating that national law is supreme (that is, supersedes) all other laws passed by the states or any other subdivision of government.

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civil liberties

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The legal constitutional protections against government. Although our civil liberties are formally set down in this, the courts, police, and legislatures define their meaning.

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Bill of Rights

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The first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution, which define such basic liberties as freedom of religion, speech, and press guarantee defendants' rights.

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First Amendment

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The constitutional amendment that establishes the four great liberties: freedom of the press, of speech, of religion, and of assembly.

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Barron v. Baltimore

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The 1833 Supreme Court Decision holding that the Bill of Rights restrained only the national government, not the states and cities.

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Gitlow v. New York

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The 1925 Supreme Court decision holding that freedoms of press and speech are "fundamental personal rights and liberties protected by the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment from impairment by the states" as well as by the federal government.

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Fourteenth Amendment

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The constitutional amendment adopted after the civil war that states, "No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or the immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any state deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws."

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incorporation doctrine

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The legal concept under which the Supreme Court has nationalized the Bill of Rights by making most of its provisions applicable to the states through the Fourteenth Amendment.

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establishment clause

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Part of the First Amendment stating that "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion."

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free exercise clause

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A First Amendment provision that prohibits government from interfering with the practice of religion.

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Lemon v. Kurtzman

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The 1971 Supreme Court decision that established that aid to church-related schools must (1) have a secular legislative purpose; (2) have a primary effect that neither advances nor inhibits religion; and (3) not foster excessive government entanglement with religion.

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Zelman v. Simmons-Harris

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The 2002 Supreme Court decision that upheld a state providing families with vouchers that could be used to pay for tuition at religious schools.

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Engel v. Vitale

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The 1962 Supreme Court decision holding that state officials violated the First Amendment when they wrote a prayer to be recited by New York's schoolchildren.

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School District of Abington Township, Pennsylvania v. Schempp

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A 1963 Supreme Court decision holding that a Pennsylvania law requiring Bible reading in schools violated the establishment clause of the First Amendment.

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prior restraint

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A government preventing material from being published. This is a common method of limiting the press in some nations, but it is usually unconstitutional in the United States, according to the First Amendment and as confirmed in the 1931 Supreme Court case of Near v. Minnesota.

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Near v. Minnesota

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The 1931 Supreme Court decision holding that the First Amendment protects newspapers from prior restraint.

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Schenck v. United States

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A 1919 decision upholding the conviction of a socialist who had urged young men to resist the draft during World War I. Justice Holmes declared that government can limit speech if the speech provokes a "clear and present danger" of substantive evils.

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Zurcher v. Stanford Daily

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A 1978 Supreme Court decision holding that a proper search warrant could be applied to a newspaper as well as to anyone else without necessarily violating the First Amendment rights to freedom of the press.

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Roth v. United States

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A 1957 Supreme Court decision ruling that "obscenity is not within the area of constitutionally protected speech or press.

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Miller v. California

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A 1973 Supreme Court decision that avoided defining obscenity by holding that community standards be used to determine whether material is obscene in terms of appealing to a "prurient interest" and being "patently offensive" and lacking in value.

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libel

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The publication of false or malicious statements that damage someone's reputation.

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New York Times v. Sullivan

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Decided in 1964, this case established the guidelines for determining whether public officials and public figures could win damage suits for libel. To do so, individuals must prove that the defamatory statements were made with "actual malice" and reckless disregard for truth.

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Texas v. Johnson

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A 1989 case in which the Supreme Court struck down a law banning the burning of the American flag on the grounds that such action was symbolic speech protected by the First Amendment.

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symbolic speech

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Nonverbal communication, such as burning a flag or wearing and armband. The Supreme Court has accorded some symbolic speech protection under the First Amendment.

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commercial speech

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Communication in the form of advertising. It can be restricted more than many other types of speech but has been receiving increased protection from the Supreme Court.

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Miami Herald Publishing Company v. Tornillo

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A 1974 case in which Supreme Court held that a state could not force a newspaper to print replies from candidates it it had criticized, illustrating the limited power of government to restrict the print media.

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Red Lion Broadcasting Company v. Federal Communications Commission

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A 1969 case in which the Supreme Court upheld restrictions on radio and television broadcasting. These restrictions on the broadcast media are much tighter than those on the print media because there are only a limited number of broadcasting frequencies available.

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NAACP v. Alabama

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The Supreme Court protected the right to assemble peaceably in this 1958 case when it decided the NAACP did not have to reveal its membership list and thus subject its members to harassment.

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probable cause

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The situation occurring when the police have reason to believe that a person should be arrested. In making the arrest, police are allowed legally to search for and seize incriminating evidence.

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unreasonable searches and seizures

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Obtaining evidence in a haphazard or random manner, a practice prohibited by the Fourth Amendment. Probable cause and/or a search warrant are required for a legal and proper search for and seizure of incriminating evidence.

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search warrant

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A written authorization from a court specifying the area to be searched and what the police are searching for.

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exclusionary rule

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The rule that evidence, no matter how incriminating, cannot be introduced into a trial if it was not constitutionally obtained. The rule prohibits use of evidence obtained through unreasonable search and seizure.

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Mapp v. Ohio

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The 1961 Supreme Court decision ruling that the Fourth Amendment's protection against unreasonable searches and seizures must be extended to the states as well as to the federal government.

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Fifth Amendment

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The constitutional amendment designed to protect the rights of persons accused of crimes, including protection against double jeopardy, self-incrimination, and punishment without due process of law.

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self-incrimination

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The situation occurring when an individual accused of a crime is compelled to be a witness against himself or herself in court. The Fifth Amendment forbids self-incrimination.

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Miranda v. Arizona

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The 1966 Supreme Court decision that sets guidelines for police questioning of accused persons to protect them against self-incrimination and protect their right to counsel.

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Sixth Amendment

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The constitutional amendment designed to protect individuals accused of crimes. It includes the right to counsel, the right to confront witnesses, and the right to a speedy and public trial.

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Gideon v. Wainwright

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The 1963 Supreme Court decision holding that anyone accused of a felony where imprisonment may be imposed, however poor he or she might be, has a right to a lawyer.

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plea bargaining

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A bargain struck between the defendant's lawyer and the prosecutor to the effect that the defendant will plead guilty to a lesser crime (or fewer crimes) in exchange for the state's promise not to prosecute the defendant for a more serious (or additional) crime.

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Eighth Amendment

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The constitutional amendment that forbids cruel and unusual punishment, although it does not define this phrase. Through the Fourteenth Amendment, this Bill of Rights provision applies to the states.

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cruel and unusual punishment

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Court sentences prohibited by the Eighth Amendment. Although the Supreme Court has ruled that mandatory death sentences for certain offenses are unconstitutional, it has not held that the death penalty itself constitutes cruel and unusual punishment.

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Gregg v. Georgia

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The 1976 Supreme Court decision that upheld the constitutionality of the death penalty, stating that "It is an extreme sanction, suitable to the most extreme of crimes." The court did not, therefore, believe that the death sentence constitutes cruel and unusual punishment.

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McCleskey v. Kemp

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The 1987 Supreme Court decision that upheld the constitutionality of the death penalty against charges that it violated the Fourteenth Amendment because minority defendants were more likely to receive the death penalty than were White defendants.

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right to privacy

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The right to a private personal life free from the intrusion of government.

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Roe v. Wade

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The 1973 Supreme Court decision holding that a state ban on all abortions was unconstitutional. The decision forbade state control over abortions during the first trimester of pregnancy, permitted states to limit abortions to protect the mother's health in the second trimester, and permitted states to protect the fetus during the third trimester.

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Planned Parenthood v. Casey

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A 1992 case in which the Supreme Court loosened its standard for evaluating restrictions on abortion from one of "strict scrutiny" of any restraints on a "fundamental right" to one of "undue burden" that permits considerably more regulation.

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Thirteenth Amendment

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The constitutional amendment ratified after the Civil War that forbade slavery and involuntary servitude

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Plessy v. Ferguson

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(1896) Court ruled that segregation in public facilities was not unconstitutional as long as the facilities were substantially equal "separate but equal"

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Brown v. Board of Education

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(1954) the Court held that school segregation was inherently unconstitutional because it violated the Fourteenth Amendment's guarantee of equal protection.

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Civil Rights Act of 1964

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Made racial discrimination illegal in hotels, motels, restaurants, and other places of public accommodation. Also forbade many forms of job discrimination.

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Fifteenth Amendment

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(1870) guaranteed African Americans the right to vote, but full implementation did not occur for another century.

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Voting Rights Act of 1965

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prohibited any government from using voting procedures that denied a person the vote on the basis of race or color.

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Twenty-fourth Amendment

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(1964) Prohibited poll taxes in the federal elections

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Harper v. Virginia State Board of Elections

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(1966) Invalidated poll taxes in state elections

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Coverture

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legal doctrine that deprived married women of any identity separate from that of their husbands

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Nineteenth Amendment

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(1920) gave women the right to vote

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Reed v. Reed

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(1971) the Court ruled that any "arbitrary" sex-based classification violated the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment (marking the first time the Court applied the Fourteenth Amendment to a case involving classification by sex).

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Craig v. Boren

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(1976) established a "medium scrutiny" standard: Gender discrimination would be presumed to be neither valid nor invalid.

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Comparable Worth

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Refers to the fact that traditional women's jobs often pay much less than men's jobs that demand comparable skill, the Courts have remained silent so far on this issue

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Faragher v. City of Boca Raton

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The Court made it clear that employers are responsible for preventing and eliminating harassment at work.

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Gray Liberation Movement

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eople in their eighties comprise the fastest growing age group in this country.

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Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990

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Requires employers and public facilities to provide "reasonable accommodations" and prohibits employment discrimination against the disabled.

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Affirmative Action

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policies requiring special efforts in employment, promotion, or school admissions on behalf of disadvantaged groups. The goal of affirmative action is to move beyond equal opportunity toward equal results.

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Regents of the University of California v. Bakke

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(1978) the Supreme Court rejected a plan at the University of California at Davis that set aside 16 out of a total of 100 places in the entering class for "disadvantaged groups."

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Adarand Constructors v. Pena

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the Court held that federal programs that classify people by race, even for an ostensibly benign purpose such as expanding opportunities for minorities, should be presumed to be unconstitutional.

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Gratz v. Bollinger

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(2003), the court struck down the University of Michigan's system of undergraduate admissions in which every applicant from an underrepresented racial or ethnic minority group was automatically awarded 20 points of the 100 needed to guarantee admission

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Equal protection of the law

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allows states to treat citizens differently if the classification is reasonable

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The Civil Rights and Women's Equity in Employment Act of 1991

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shifted the burden of proof in justifying hiring and promotion practices to employers

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Minority Majority

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a situation in which minority groups will outnumber Caucasians of European descent.

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Protectionism

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From 1920 to 1960 public policy toward women was dominated by this

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agenda setting

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Determining which public-policy questions will be debated or considered.

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boycott

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A form of pressure or protest—an organized refusal to purchase a particular product or deal with a particular business.

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consensus

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General agreement among the citizenry on an issue.

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divisive opinion

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Public opinion that is polarized between two quite different positions.

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gender gap

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A term most often used to describe the difference between the percentage of women who vote for a particular candidate and the percentage of men who vote for the candidate. The term came into use after the 1980 presidential elections.

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generational effect

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A long-lasting effect of events of a particular time on the political opinions or preferences of those who came of political age at that time.

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media

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The channels of mass communication.

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opinion leader

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One who is able to influence the opinions of others because of position, expertise, or personality. Such leaders help to shape public opinion.

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opinion poll

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A method of systematically questioning a small, selected sample of respondents who are deemed representative of the total population. Opinion polls are widely used by government, business, university scholars, political candidates, and voluntary groups to provide reasonably accurate data on public attitudes, beliefs, expectations, and behavior.

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peer group

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A group consisting of members sharing common social characteristics. These groups play an important part in the socialization process, helping to shape attitudes and beliefs.

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political socialization

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The process through which individuals learn a set of political attitudes and form opinions about social issues. The family and the educational system are two of the most important forces in the political socialization process.

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political trust

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The degree to which individuals express trust in the government and political institutions, usually measured through a specific series of survey questions.

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public opinion

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The aggregate of individual attitudes or beliefs shared by some portion of the adult population.

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sampling error

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The difference between sample results and the true result if the entire population had been interviewed.

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socioeconomic status

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The value assigned to a person due to occupation or income.

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Watergate break-in

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The 1972 illegal entry into the Democratic National Committee offices by participants in President Richard Nixon's reelection campaign.

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direct technique

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An interest group activity that involves interaction with government officials to further the group's goals.

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free rider problem

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The difficulty interest groups face in recruiting members when the benefits they achieve can be gained without joining the group.

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indirect technique

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A strategy employed by interest groups that uses third parties to influence government officials.

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interest group

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An organized group of individuals sharing common objectives who actively attempt to influence policymakers.

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labor movement

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Generally, the full range of economic and political expression of working-class interests; politically, the organization of working-class interests.

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latent interests

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Public-policy interests that are not recognized or addressed by a group at a particular time.

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lobbyist

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An organization or individual that attempts to influence the passage, defeat, or contents of legislation and the administrative decisions of government.

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material incentive

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A reason or motive having to do with economic benefits or opportunities.

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public interest

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The best interests of the collective, overall community; the national good, rather than the narrow interests of a self-serving group.

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purposive incentive

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A reason or motive having to do with ethical beliefs or ideological principles.

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social movement

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A movement that represents the demands of a large segment of the public for political, economic, or social change

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solidary incentive

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A reason or motive having to do with the desire to associate with others and to share with others a particular interest or hobby.

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Dealignment

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A decline in party loyalties that reduces long-term party commitment.

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Democratic Party

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One of the two major American political parties evolving out of the Republican Party of Thomas Jefferson.

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Divided Government

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A situation in which one major political party controls the presidency and the other controls the chambers of Congress, or in which one party controls a state governorship and the other controls the state legislature.

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Electoral College

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A group of persons, called electors, who are selected by the voters in each state. This group officially elects the president and the vice president of the United States.

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Era of Good Feelings

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The years from 1817 to 1825, when James Monroe was president and there was, in effect, no political opposition.

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Faction

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A group or bloc in a legislature or political party acting in pursuit of some special interest or position

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Independent

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A voter or candidate who does not identify with a political party.

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National Committee

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A standing committee of a national political party established to direct and coordinate party activities between national party conventions.

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National Convention

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The meeting held every four years by each major party to select presidential and vice presidential candidates, to write a platform, to choose a national committee, and to conduct party business.

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Party Identification

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Linking oneself to a particular political party.

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Party Organization

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The formal structure and leadership of a political party, including election committees; local, state, and national executives; and paid professional staff.

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Party Platform

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A document drawn up at each national convention, outlining the policies, positions, and principles of the party.

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Party-in-Government

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All of the elected and appointed officials who identify with a political party.

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Party-in-the-Electorate

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Those members of the general public who identify with a political party or who express a preference for one party over another.

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Patronage

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Rewarding faithful party workers and followers with government employment and contracts.

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Plurality

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A number of votes cast for a candidate that is greater than the number of votes for any other candidate but not necessarily a majority.

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Political Party

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A group of political activists who organize to win elections, operate the government, and determine public policy.

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Realignment

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A process in which a substantial group of voters switches party allegiance, producing a long-term change in the political landscape.

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Republican Party

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One of the two major American political parties. It emerged in the 1850s as an antislavery party and consisted of former northern Whigs and antislavery Democrats.

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Reverse-Income Effect

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A tendency for wealthier states or regions to favor the Democrats and for less wealthy states or regions to favor the Republicans. The effect appears paradoxical because it reverses traditional patterns of support.

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Safe Seat

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A district that returns the legislator with 55 percent of the vote or more.

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Splinter Party

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A new party formed by a dissident faction within a major political party. Often, splinter parties have emerged when a particular personality was at odds with the major party.

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State Central Committee

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The principal organized structure of each political party within each state. This committee is responsible for carrying out policy decisions of the party's state convention.

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Straight-Ticket Voting

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Voting exclusively for the candidates of one party.

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Swing Voters

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Voters who frequently swing their support from one party to another.

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Third Party

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A political party other than the two major political parties (Republican and Democratic).

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Ticket Splitting

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Voting for candidates of two or more parties for different offices. For example, a voter splits her ticket if she votes for a Republican presidential candidate and for a Democratic congressional candidate.

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Tipping

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A phenomenon that occurs when a group that is becoming more numerous over time grows large enough to change the political balance in a district, state, or country.

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Two-Party System

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A political system in which only two parties have a reasonable chance of winning.

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Unit Rule

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A rule by which all of a state's electoral votes are cast for the presidential candidate receiving a plurality of the popular vote in that state.

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Whig Party

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A major party in the United States during the first half of the nineteenth century, formally established in 1836. The Whig party was anti-Jackson and represented a variety of regional interests.

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nomination

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The official endorsement of a candidate for office by a political party. Generally, success in this game requires momentum, money, and media attention.

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campaign strategy

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The master game plan candidates lay out to guide their electoral campaign

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national party convention

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The supreme power within each of the parties. It meets every four years to nominate the party's presidential and vice-presidential candidates and to write the party's platform.

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caucus

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A meeting of all state party leaders for selecting delegates to the national party convention. They are usually organized in a pyramid.

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presidential primaries

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Elections in which voters in a state vote for a candidate (or delegates pledged to him or her). Most delegates to the national party conventions are chosen this way.

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McGovern-Fraser Commission

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A commission formed at the 1968 Democratic convention in response to demands for reform by minority groups and others who sought better representation.

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superdelegates

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National party leaders who automatically get a delegate slot at the Democratic national party convention.

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frontloading

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The recent tendency of states to hold primaries early in the calendar in order to capitalize on media attention.

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national primary

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A proposal by critics of the caucuses and presidential primaries, which would replace these electoral methods with a nationwide primary held early in the election year.

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regional primaries

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A proposal by critics of the caucuses and presidential primaries to replace these electoral methods with a series of primaries held in each geographic region.

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party platform

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A political party's statement of its goals and policies for the next four years. This is drafted prior to the party convention by a committee whose members are chosen in rough proportion to each candidate's strength. It is the best formal statement of a party's beliefs.

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direct mail

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A high-tech method of raising money for a political cause or candidates. It involves sending information and requests for money to people whose names appear on lists of those who have supported similar views or candidates in the past.

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Federal Election Campaign Act

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A law passed in 1974 for reforming campaign finances. The act created the Federal Election Commission (FEC), provided public financing for presidential primaries and general elections, limited presidential campaign spending, required disclosure, and attempted to limit contributions.

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Federal Election Commission (FEC)

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A six-member bipartisan agency created by the Federal Election Campaign Act of 1974. It enforces and administers campaign finance laws.

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Presidential Election Campaign Fund

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Money from the $3 federal income tax check-off goes into this fund, which is then distributed to qualified candidates to subsidize their presidential campaigns.

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matching funds

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Contributions of up to $250 matched from the Presidential Election Campaign Fund to candidates for the presidential nomination who qualify and agree to meet various conditions, such as limiting their overall spending.

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soft money

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Political contributions earmarked for party-building expenses at the grassroots level or for generic party advertising. Unlike money that goes to the campaign of a particular candidate, such party donations are not subject to contribution limits. For a time, such contributions were unlimited, until they were banned by the McCain-Feingold Act.

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527 groups

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Independent groups that seek to influence the political process but are not subject to contribution restrictions because they do not directly advocate the election of a particular candidate.

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Political Action Committees (PACs)

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Funding vehicles created by the 1974 campaign finance reforms. A corporation, union, or some other interest group can create this and register it with the Federal Election Commission (FEC), which will meticulously monitor its expenditures.

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selective perception

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The phenomenon that people often pay the most attention to things they already agree with and interpret them according to their own predispositions.

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legitimacy

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A characterization of elections by political scientists meaning that they are almost universally accepted as a fair and free method of selecting political leaders. When it is high, as in the United States, even the losers accept the results peacefully.

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referendum

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A state-level method of direct legislation that gives voters a chance to approve or disapprove proposed legislation or a proposed constitutional amendment.

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initiative petition

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A process permitted in some states whereby voters may put proposed changes in the state constitution to a vote if sufficient signatures are obtained on petitions calling for such a referendum.

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suffrage

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The legal right to vote, extended to African Americans by the Fifteenth Amendment, to women by the Nineteenth Amendment, and to people over the age of 18 by the Twenty-sixth Amendment.

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political efficacy

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The belief that one's political participation really matters—that one's vote can actually make a difference.

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civic duty

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The belief that in order to support democratic government, a citizen should always vote.

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voter registration

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A system adopted by the states that requires voters to register well in advance of Election Day. A few states permit this on Election Day.

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Motor Voter Act

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Passed in 1993, this act went into effect for the 1996 election. It requires states to permit people to register to vote at the same time they apply for their driver's license.

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mandate theory of elections

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The idea that the winning candidate has a mandate from the people to carry out his or her platforms and politics. Politicians like the theory better than political scientists do.

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policy voting

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Electoral choices that are made on basis of the voters' policy preferences and on the basis of where the candidates stand on policy issues.

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electoral college

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A unique American institution, created by the Constitution, providing for the selection of the president by electors chosen by the state parties. Although its vote usually reflects a popular majority, the winner-take-all rules give clout to big states.

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retrospective voting

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A theory of voting in which voters essentially ask this simple question: "What have you done for me lately?"

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interest group

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An organization of people with shared policy goals entering the policy process at several points to try to achieve those goals. They pursue their goals in many arenas.

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pluralist theory

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A theory of government and politics emphasizing that politics is mainly a competition among groups, each one pressing for its own preferred policies.

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elite theory

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A theory of government and politics contending that societies are divided along class lines and that an upper-class elite will rule, regardless of the formal niceties of governmental organization.

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hyperpluralist theory

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A theory of government and politics contending that groups are so strong that government is weakened. It is an extreme, exaggerated, or perverted form of pluralism.

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subgovernments (iron triangles)

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A network of groups within the American political system that exercise a great deal of control over specific policy areas. They are composed of interest group leaders interested in a particular policy, the government agency in charge of administering that policy, and the members of congressional committees and subcommittees handling that policy.

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potential group

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All the people who might be interest group members because they share some common interest. It is almost always larger than an actual group.

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actual group

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That part of the potential group consisting of members who actually join.

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collective good

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Something of value (money, a tax write-off, prestige, clean air, and so on) that cannot be withheld from a group member.

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free-rider problem

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The problem faced by unions and other groups when people do not join because they can benefit from the group's activities without officially joining. The bigger the group, the more serious the problem.

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Olson's law of large groups

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A principle stating that "the larger the group, the further it will fall short of providing an optimal amount of a collective good."

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selective benefits

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Goods (such as information publications, travel discounts, and group insurance rates) that a group can restrict to those who pay their annual dues.

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single-issue groups

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Groups that have a narrow interest, tend to dislike compromise, and often draw membership from people new to politics. These features distinguish them from traditional interest groups.

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lobbying

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According to Lester Milbrath, a "communication, by someone other than a citizen acting on his own behalf, directed to a governmental decision maker with the hope of influencing his decision."

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electioneering

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Direct group involvement in the electoral process. Groups can help fund campaigns, provide testimony, and get members to work for candidates, and some form political action committees (PACs).

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political action committees (PACs)

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Political funding vehicles created by the 1974 campaign finance reforms. A corporation, union, or some other interest group can create one of these and register it with the Federal Election Commission, which will meticulously monitor its expenditures.

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amicus curiae briefs

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Legal briefs submitted by a "friend of the court" for the purpose of raising additional points of view and presenting information not contained in the briefs of the formal parties. These attempt to influence a court's decision.

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class action suits

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Lawsuits permitting a small number of people to sue on behalf of all other people similarly situated.

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union shop

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A provision found in some collective bargaining agreements requiring all employees of a business to join the union within a short period, usually 30 days, and to remain members as a condition of employment.

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right-to-work law

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A state law forbidding requirements that workers must join a union to hold their jobs. It was specifically permitted in states by the Taft-Hartley Act of 1947

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public interest lobbies

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According to Jeffery Berry, organizations that seek "a collective good, the achievement of which will not selectively and materially benefit the membership of activities of the organization."

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incumbents

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Those already holding office. In congressional elections, they usually win.

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casework

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Activities of members of Congres that help constituents as individuals; cutting through bureaucratic red tape to get people what they think they have a right to get.

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pork barrel

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The mighty list of federal projects, grants, and contracts available to cities, businesses, colleges, and institutions available in a congressional district.

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bicameral legislature

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A legislature divided into two houses. The U.S. Congress and every American state legislature except Nebraska's are this.

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House Rules Committee

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An institution unique to the House of Representative that reviews all bills (except revenue, budget, and appropriations bills) coming from a House committee before they go to the full House.

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filibuster

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A strategy unique to the Senate whereby opponents of a piece of legislation try to talk it to death, based on the tradition of unlimited debate. Today, 60 members present and voting can halt this.

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Speaker of the House

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An office mandated by the Constitution. This person is chosen in practice by the majority party, has both formal and informal powers, and is second in line to succeed the presidency should that office become vacant.

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majority leader

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The principal partisan ally of the Speaker of the House or the party's manager in the Senate. The majority leader is responsible for scheduling bills, influencing committee assignments, and rounding up votes in behalf of the party's legislative positions.

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whips

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Party leaders who work with the majority leader or minority leader to count votes beforehand and lean on waverers whose votes are crucial to a bill favored by the party.

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minority leader

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The principal leader of the minority party in the House of Representatives or in the Senate.

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standing committees

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Separate subject-matter committees in each house of Congress that handle bills in different policy areas.

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joint committees

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Congressional committees on a few subject-matter areas with membership drawn from both houses.

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conference committees

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Congressional committees formed when the Senate and the House pass a particular bill in different forms. Party leadership appoints members from each house to iron out the differences and bring back a single bill.

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select committees

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Congressional committees appointed for a specific purpose, such as the Watergate investigation.

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legislative oversight

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Congress' monitoring of the bureaucracy and its administration of policy, performed mainly through hearings.

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committee chairs

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The most important influencers of the congressional agenda. They play dominant roles in scheduling hearings, hiring staff, appointing subcommittees, and managing committee bills when they are brought before the full house.

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seniority system

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A simple rule for picking committee chairs, in effect until the 1970s. The member who had served the committee the longest and whose party controlled Congress became chair, regardless of the party loyalty, mental state, or competence.

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caucus (congressional)

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A group of members of Congress sharing some interest or characteristic. Most are composed of members from both parties and form both houses.

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bill

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A proposed law, drafted in precise, legal language. Anyone can draft one of this, but only a member of the House of Representatives or the Senate can formally submit it for consideration.

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Twenty-second Amendment

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Passed in 1951, the amendment that limits presidents to two terms of office.

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impeachment

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The political equivalent of an indictment in criminal law, prescribed by the Constitution. The House of Representatives may do this to the president by a majority vote for "Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors."

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Watergate

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The events and scandal surrounding a break-in at the Democratic National Committee headquarters in 1972 and the subsequent cover-up of White House involvement, leading to the eventual resignation of President Nixon under the threat of impeachment.

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Twenty-fifth Amendment

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Passed in 1951, this amendment permits the vice president to become acting president's cabinet determine that the president is disabled. The amendment also outlines how a recuperated president can reclaim the job.

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cabinet

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A group of presidential advisors not mentioned in the Constitution, although every president has had one. Today the cabinet is composed of 14 secretaries and the attorney general.

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National Security Council (NSC)

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An office created in 1947 to coordinate the president's foreign and military policy advisors. Its formal members are the president, vice president, secretary of state, and secretary of defense, and it is managed by the president's national security advisor.

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Council of Economic Advisors (CEA)

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A three-member body appointed by the president to advise the president on economic policy.

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Office of Management and Budget (OMB)

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An office that grew out of the Bureau of the Budget, created in 1921, consisting of a handful of political appointees and hundreds of skilled professionals. It performs both managerial and budgetary functions.

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veto

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The constitutional power of the president to send a bill back to Congress with reasons for rejecting it. A two-thirds vote in each house can override a veto.

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pocket veto

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A veto taking place when Congress adjourns within 10 days of submitting a bill to the president, who simply lets it die by neither signing nor vetoing it.

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presidential coattails

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These occur when voters cast their ballots for congressional candidates of the president's party because they support the president. Recent studies show that few races are won this way.

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War Powers Resolution

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A law passed in 1973 in reaction to American fighting in Vietnam and Cambodia that requires presidents to consult with Congress whenever possible prior to using military force and to withdraw forces after 60 days unless Congress declares war or grants an extension. Presidents view this as unconstitutional.

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legislative veto

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The ability of Congress to override a presidential decision. Although the War Powers Resolution asserts this authority, there is reason to believe that, if challenged, the Supreme Court would find the this in violation of the doctrine of separation of powers.

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crisis

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A sudden, unpredictable, and potentially dangerous event requiring the president to play the role of manager.

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patronage

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One of the key inducements used by political machines. A patronage job, promotion, or contract is one that is given for political reasons rather than for merit or competence alone.

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Pendleton Civil Service Act

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Passed in 1883, an Act that created a federal civil service so that hiring and promotion would be based on merit rather than patronage.

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civil service

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A system of hiring and promotion based on the merit principle and the desire to create a nonpartisan government service.

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merit principle

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The idea that hiring should be based on entrance exams and promotion ratings to produce administration by people with talent and skill.

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Hatch Act

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A federal law prohibiting government employees from active participation in partisan politics.

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Office of Personnel Management (OPM)

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The office in charge of hiring for most agencies of the federal government, using elaborate rules in the process.

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GS (General Schedule) rating

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A schedule for federal employees, ranging from GS 1 to GS 18, by which salaries can be keyed to rating and experience.

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Senior Executive Service (SES)

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An elite cadre of about 9,000 federal government managers, established by the Civil Service Reform Act of 1978, who are mostly career officials but include some political appointees who do not require Senate confirmation.

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bureaucracy

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According to Max Weber, a hierarchical authority structure that uses task specialization, operates on the merit principle, and behaves with impersonality. It governs modern states.

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independent regulatory agency

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A government agency responsible for some sector of the economy, making and enforcing rules to protect the public interest. It also judges disputes over these rules. Example : Interstate Commerce Commission

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government corporations

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A government organization that, like business corporations, provides a service that could be provided by the private sector and typically charges for its services. The U.S. Postal Service is an example.

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independent executive agency

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The government not accounted for by cabinet departments, independent regulatory agencies, and government corporations. Its administrators are typically appointed by the president and serve at the president's pleasure. NASA is an example.

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policy implementation

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The stage of policymaking between the establishment of a policy and the consequences of the policy for the people whom it affects. It involves translating the goals and objectives of a policy into an operating, ongoing program.

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standard operating procedures (SOPs)

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These procedures are used by bureaucrats to bring uniformity to complex organizations. Uniformity improves fairness and makes personnel interchangeable.

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administrative discretion

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The authority of administrative actors to select among various responses to a given problem. Discretion is greatest when routines, or standard operating procedures, do not fit a case.

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street-level bureaucrats

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A phrase coined by Michael Lipsky, referring to those bureaucrats who are in constant contact with the public and have considerable administrative discretion.

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regulation

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The use of governmental authority to control or change some practice in the private sector. They pervade the daily lives of people and institutions.

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deregulation

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The lifting of restrictions on business, industry, and professional activities for which government rules had been established and that bureaucracies had been created to administer.

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command-and-control policy

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According to Charles Schultze, the existing system of regulation whereby government tells business how to reach certain goals, checks that these commands are followed, and punishes offenders.

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incentive system

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According to Charles Schultze, a more effective and efficient policy than command-and-control; in the incentive system, market-like strategies are used to manage public policy.

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executive orders

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Regulations originating from the executive branch. They are one method presidents can use to control the bureaucracy.

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iron triangles

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A mutually dependent relationship between bureaucratic agencies, interest groups, and congressional committees or subcommittees. They dominate some areas of domestic policymaking.

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standing to sue

answer

The requirement that plaintiffs have a serious interest in a case, which depends on whether they have sustained or are likely to sustain a substantial and direct injury from a party or action of government.

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class action suits

answer

Lawsuits permitting a small number of people to sue on behalf of all other people similarly situated.

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justiciable disputes

answer

A requirement that to be heard a case must be capable of being settled as a matter of law rather than on other grounds as is commonly the case in legislative bodies

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amicus curiae briefs

answer

Legal briefs submitted by a "friend of the court" for the purpose of raising additional points of view and presenting information not contained in the briefs of the formal parties. These briefs attempt to influence a court's decision.

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original jurisdiction

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The jurisdiction of courts that hear a case first, usually in a trial. These are the courts that determine the facts about a case.

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appellate jurisdiction

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The jurisdiction of courts that hear cases brought to them on appeal from lower courts. These courts do not review the factual record, only the legal issues involved.

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district courts

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The 91 Federal courts of original jurisdiction. They are the only federal courts in which trials are held and in which juries may be impaneled.

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courts of appeal

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Appellate courts empowered to review all final decisions of district courts, except in rare cases. In addition, they also hear appeals to orders of many federal regulatory agencies. Compare district courts.

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Supreme Court

answer

The pinnacle of the American judicial system. The court ensures uniformity in interpreting national laws, resolves conflicts among states, and maintains national supremacy in law. It has both original jurisdiction and appellate jurisdiction, but unlike other federal courts, it controls its own agenda.

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senatorial courtesy

answer

An unwritten tradition whereby nominations for state-level federal judicial posts are not confirmed if they are opposed by a senator of the president's party from the state in which the nominee will serve. The tradition also applies to courts of appeal when there is opposition from the nominee's state senator.

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solicitor general

answer

A presidential appointee and the third-ranking office in the Department of Justice. The solicitor general is in charge of the appellate court litigation of the federal government.

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opinion

answer

A statement of legal reasoning behind a judicial decision. THe content of an opinion may be as important as the decision itself.

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stare decisis

answer

A Latin phrase meaning "let the decision stand." Most cases reaching appellate courts are settled on this principle.

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precedent

answer

How similar cases have been decided in the past.

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original intent

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A view that the Constitution should be interpreted according to the original intent of the framers. Many conservatives support this view.

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judicial implementation

answer

How and whether court decisions are translated into actual policy, thereby affecting the behavior of others. The courts rely on other units of government to enforce their decisions.

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Marbury v. Madison

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The 1803 case in which Chief Justice John Marshall and his associates first asserted the right of the Supreme Court to determine the meaning of the U.S. Constitution. The decision established the Court's power of judicial review over acts of Congress, (the Judiciary Act of 1789).

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judicial review

answer

The power of the courts to determine whether acts of Congress and, by implication, the executive are in accord with the U.S. Constitution. Judicial review was established by John Marshall and his associates in Marbury v. Madison.

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United States v. Nixon

answer

The 1974 case in which the Supreme Court unanimously held that the doctrine of executive priveledge was implicit in the Constitution but could not be extended to protect documents relevant to criminal prosecutions

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judicial restraint

answer

A judicial philosophy in which judges play minimal policymaking roles, leaving that duty strictly to the legislatures

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judicial activism

answer

A judicial philosophy in which judges make bold policy decisions, even charting new constitutional ground. Advocates of this approach emphasize that the courts can correct pressing needs, especially those unmet by the majoritarian political process.

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political questions

answer

A doctrine developed by the federal courts and used as a means to avoid deciding some cases, principally those involving conflicts between the president and Congress.

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statutory construction

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The judicial interpretation of an act of Congress. In some cases where statutory construction is an issue, Congress passes new legislation to clarify existing laws.

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