AP EURO- The Revolutions of 1848 and Nationalism – Flashcards

- In 1848, liberal revolutions broke out throughout Europe. Although, at first, they appeared to be spectacularly successful, in the end, all the revolutions failed. - In general, revolutions occurred where governments were distrusted and where the fear and resentment fed by rising food prices and unemployment found focus in political demands. - In the end, the revolutions failed b/c the revolutionaries found themselves divided, and also, as Seaman states, because the original governments still had the power and will to survive. - Sometimes 1848 is referred to as "the turning point at which modern history failed to turn" because it seemed as though the revolutionaries were only so close to success.

- Naturally, it all started in France (where else?) b/c of a small issue about suffrage. When the government refused to widen suffrage, the parliamentary opposition launched a protest movement that staged large banquets across the country. - The government (aware of its own unpopularity b/c by trying to be in the center, they didn't please anybody) banned the banquet scheduled for Paris in late February 1848, but some deputies said they would attend anyway, sparking a popular rebellion - barricades formed, the whole deal. - Louis Philippe responded by reviewing his National Guard, they refused to cheer him, LP realized he had no support and abdicated in favor of his grandson and left for England. - Instead of listing to LP, of course, two rival newspapers chose a provisional government of men, who appeared a the Hotel de Ville and declared France a republic. Led by Alphonse de Lamartine, an admired romantic poet, the new government was dominated by moderates who at first cooperated with the more radical members. They agreed on universal male suffrage, and on the citizen's right to work, and they established a commission to hold public hearings on labor problems. - But the new regime didn't want to go overboard - it rejected intervention on behalf of other revolutions, didn't use the red flag, and added new taxes. Relations w/the church were great, nearly 85% of the people voted, moderate republicans won, and all seemed well... - The workers, however, were not satisfied and agitated for a social program and pinned their hopes on the program of national workshops that had been established (although they were imaged as cooperatives, they were really temporary relief programs). But the program seemed stupid to the moderates, who disbanded the workshops in June (bad move). - Now the workers were really ticked off, and they responded by building barricades. For three days they fought viciously against the republic's troops (led by General Cavaignac) but were crushed in the bloody time known as the June Days. Now, with almost dictatorial powers, Cavaignac restricted the press, suppressed the radicals, and instituted severe discipline on the workers. Although Cavaignac remained a republican and the assembly still wrote its constitution, something was definitely off. - The June Days represented the fatal split between the two revolutionary groups: middle class & working class - So, in December, there was an election and Louis Napoleon Bonaparte won w/70% of the votes b/c of his name, which meant glory and stability. Bonaparte later changed the government to an empire w/himself as emperor just like his uncle, the original Napoleon. So, all in all, the revolution failed!

wanted moderate goals, like equality of taxation, careers open to talent, representative government (but only w/middle class voting b/c voters had to have stake in society and education), freedom of speech, press - goals of Enlightenment.

wanted radical goals, socialism, total equality - new type of revolution no longer based on Enlightenment but based on socialism and working class.

- In the Austrian Empire, the Hungarians had by mid-March established a free press and a national guard and had abolished feudal obligations and special privileges. Vienna then reluctantly allowed Hungary to levy its own taxes and direct its own army. - This Hungarian example caused students in Vienna to demand representative government for Austria as well - crowds rose up, Metternich resigned, censorship was abolished, a constitution was promised, and universal male suffrage was given. - But, of course, Hungarian autonomy caused similar demands from the Czechs in Bohemia, the Croatians in Croatia, and the Romanians in Transylvania. - The original revolutionaries, however, had no tolerance for other smaller revolutions against the Germans, and it supported the repressors of those small revolutions. - As the smaller revolutions gained power, so did the Hapsburgs (who asked for the support of the smaller revolutions against the first revolutions). - The Hapsburgs then used their powerful armies to force all the revolutionaries into submission.

- In the meantime, Frederick William IV of Prussia, upon hearing about the uprising in Vienna, granted some concessions, relaxed censorship and called the Landtag (parliament). Fighting broke out anyway. But when FW agreed to remove his troops from Berlin and elected a constitutional assembly through indirect male suffrage (Berlin), it stopped and it seemed that the revolution had won out. - Finally, the Little Germans won out, and in March 1849 the Prussian king was elected to become the German emperor. But (gasp!) he refused - which was actually not surprising since the Prussians were never liberal, cared nothing for Germany, and FW didn't want his power limited - so the constitution was never put into effect. Note that by this time the Landtag in Prussia had already been dissolved. - Also by this time the MC had been spooked by the strength of the working class rebellions, so they asked for help from the Prussian king, he sees they are powerless: that's all for that revolution!

in May, 830 delegates met at Frankfurt to discuss German issues. Most favored a monarchial German state w/a semi-democratic constitution, but there was a split between the Little Germans (wanted Prussia to lead) and Big Germans (wanted Austria to lead).

- A similar pattern occurred in Italy. At first, the revolutions were successful, and all the states got constitutions (Napes, Tuscany, Piedmont, even Papal States). - Lombardy and Venetia had been part of the Hapsburg Empire, but after the revolution in Vienna, a revolt broke out in Milan against the Austrian forces there. In the Five Glorious Days of Milan the Austrians were forced to retreat. The Venetian republic was reestablished, and Piedmont joined the war against Austria as well. In fact, when it then turned out that the pope was not an Italian nationalist (surprise, surprise) and he escaped, Rome was even left to be run by a representative assembly. - Still, military force was the decisive factor, and Austria came back and beat Piedmont and its allies, leaving Austria back in firm control. Louis Napoleon then restored the pope, Sicily fell to the kingdom of Naples in May 1849, and, finally, Venetia was defeated in August 1849 by Austria.

- Although none of the revolutions succeeded, they had a lasting impact on Europe. - The widespread revolutions measured the failures of restoration, once again demonstrated the power of political ideas, and uncovered the effects of a generation of social change. - Several gains, in fact, did endure: peasants in Prussia and Austria were emancipated, Piedmont and Prussia kept their new constitutions, and monarchs learned they needed to watch public opinion. - Liberals learned that they couldn't depend on the masses to follow them w/out making demands, they reevaluated their own goals - perhaps the old order was better than anarchy, they thought. The, on the other hand, saw they couldn't trust the liberals to help them (they were ripped off). - Everyone realized that revolutions needed power and armies to back them up but that, nevertheless, nationalism was a powerful new force in politics.

- Nationalism's roots stem from a shared sense of regional and cultural identity, but the French Revolution and the effects of Napoleon's conquests really caused it to emerge as a force in Europe. - Nationalism was also a movement towards modernization, as countries attempted to industrialize in order to compete with other nations and tried to modernize their political systems. - As an intellectual movement, nationalism also emphasized the importance of culture and cultural uniqueness. It rejected the universality of the Enlightenment and stated that each country had its own unique values and was suited to its own system of government. Many thinkers (like German nationalists Herder and Gottlieb) urged their countrymen to celebrate their cultural values. - So, nationalism led to a fascination with folk culture and national history. - As a political movement, the goal of nationalism was independence: both actual and economic. - Note that there were two different types of nationalism: Liberal & Militaristic

combined w/ideas of the French Revolution, the liberal nationalists stated that no country is better than another, but that each country has its own unique qualities. All nations deserve to be unified and led by people of their own nationality who can provide the nation with a constitution that is rational, reasonable and just, they said.

associated w/ideas of social Darwinism and Realpolitik, the claim of militaristic nationalism is that one's nation is better, not just different. Machiavellian politicians who are out for personal power can exploit this form of nationalism.

- Nationalist tensions led to the Crimean War, which originated over competing claims by Roman Catholic and Greek Orthodox monks to be the guardians of Jerusalem's holy places. - France (supporting the Catholics) pressured the Ottoman sultan into giving the Catholics special privileges, which caused the Russians (supporting the Greek Orthodox) to demand a protectorate over Orthodox churches w/in the Ottoman Empire. Then the Russians occupied Wallachia and Moldavia, Danubian lands that were under the Ottomans. - Concerned by the Russian expansion, the English urged the sultan to resist the Russian demands. When negotiations broke down, Britain and France sent their fleets to the Aegean Sea, and in October 1853 the sultan declared war on Russia. When his butt got kicked, Britain and France joined him to preserve the balance of power. - In the end, England (BOP), France (defend Catholics), Piedmont (to go to peace conference) and Turkey fight Russia in the Crimean area. This war exposed the weakness of Austria and Russia, and showed how antiquated their systems were.

finally, the Turkish side won and the powers met at the Congress of Paris, a congress that was preoccupied with issues of nationalism. Russia was forced to cede some territory, surrender its claims in Turkey and accept a ban on warships in the Black Sea. The big issue at the conference had to do w/national claims (who should get the Danubian principalities?), an issue which was postponed b/c the Austrians didn't want the obvious solution (an autonomous state) to be put into effect as they felt threatened by nationalist interests.

- Consequently, the task of unification, surprisingly, came to the small state of Piedmont, which had fought Austria and emerged with a constitutional monarchy led by Victor Emmanuel II. - - They were just looking for a way to start the war when Austria did some stupid things: it imposed military conscription on Venetia and Lombardy (super unpopular), and it sent a declaration of total disarmament or war to Piedmont - geez, talk about playing right into their hands. - So after two battles at Magenta and Solferino, things are going well when Napoleon III quits b/c he realizes he is falling into a trap (worried about Piedmont getting too strong)! - But now, it is time for Garibaldi who is the ultimate romantic. He recruits a thousands volunteers, sails down to Sicily and attacks the Kingdom of Two Sicily. As he wins battles, his army grows, and he is soon ready to take on Papal States (also France then) and Cavour (b/c Garibaldi is a republican and Cavour has a monarch). So, in 1860 he marches to meet the North and, in order to prevent a civil war, he gives ALL his conquests to Cavour and goes home to grow corn! - So now Northern Italy (w/exeception of Venetia and Rome) joins Southern Italy. - In 1866, through the Austro-Prussian war, Italy gets Venetia, and then, in 1870, through the Franco-Prussian war, Italy sneaks in and takes Rome. Now Italy is totally unified.

known as "the spirit" of Italian Unification, Mazzini was one of the first Italian nationalists. His form of nationalism was very romantic and emphasized Italy's uniqueness and special role in Europe. In nationalism, Mazzini saw the expression of natural communities, the basis for popular democracy and international brotherhood. Although Mazzini made many attempts to unify Italy through movements like Young Italy and conspiracies and propaganda (etc.), he never succeeded. His big chance came in 1848, but, when Austria regained control, Mazzini left.

was Prime Minister, a liberal who believed in progress, tolerance, limited suffrage, and who saw nationalism as an avenue to modernization. Although Piedmont's internal strength was his first concern, he also wished to make Piedmont the center of Italy's resurgence, the Risorgimento.

made by Cavour w/Louis Napoleon, the Plombieres Agreement stated that if Piedmont were at war w/Austria then France would back them up. If Piedmont won, then there would be land gains for both countries. Cavour wanted Venetia and Lombardy out of the deal (but he never intended to fully unify Italy), and Napoleon wanted to weaken Austria, get Nice and Savoy, and get back at the Austrians (for Congress of Vienna).

is where Napoleon III pulls out and the Austrian-Sardinian war ends.

- The process of German Unification began as early as 1834, when the Zollverein (Prussian led economic union) was formed. Then in 1848 the Frankfurt Assembly reinforced the concept of a united Germany. In 1861, Willhelm I mounted the Prussian throne, and in 1862 Bismarck was appointed PM. - When Willhelm I came to power in 1861, there was a big issue on military spending: Willhelm wants $, Parliament doesn't want more taxes. So Willhelm appoints Bismarck, who collects taxes regardless (reminiscent of England w/Charles I). But this time, b/c of the tradition of absolutism, the monarch won out and, although Parliament was mad, it couldn't do anything about it. - Then, in 1864 there is The Danish War in which Austria & Prussia fight the Danish. This war originates when Danish want traditional German provinces of Schleswig and Holstein. Naturally the Austrians and Prussians win, and Austria gets Holstein while Prussia gets Schleswig at the Gastein Convention. It has been debated whether or not this was a deliberate plan by Bismarck to start war later - but no, b/c in, Austria made some exorbitant demands, but Bismarck still didn't go to war... - Then in 1866 the Austro-Prussian (Seven Weeks) War starts. Bismarck instigates this war by causing trouble in Holstein, the Prussians kick Austrian butts b/c Austrians have out of date military technology and have to cope with all these nationalist issues. - Next in 1870 the Crisis of the Spanish Succession occurs. The question is the next Spanish emperor (not this again). Bismarck proposes Leopold of Hohenzollern (Will's cousin), the Cortes like it, but France sure doesn't. Willhelm backs down at Ems, but he won't promise to never do it again when Napoleon III asks him to. Concerned, Will sends the Ems Telegram home to Bismarck saying what happened, Bismarck changes a few choice words, releases it to the press and voila - you have a war! - So the Franco-Prussian War is on. France is favored, but, once again, Prussia totally wipes the floor with the French. Not only does Prussia win, but the Prussians even force the French into unconditional surrender via the Siege of Paris (not very pretty, people were eating their dogs and cats). Then, to add insult to injury, the French pay a huge indemnity, have to give up Alsace-Lorraine, and must watch Willhelm get crowned Emperor of Germany at Versailles! What could be worse?

events not planned in advance (contrary to leader's claims later on), industrialized north and rural south, done piece by piece, done using Realpolitik, at first leaders didn't want/expect full unification, and big obstacle in both cases = Austria.