AP Euro Industrialization, Reaction, and Progress Unit Test (1815-1848) – Flashcards

The defeat of Napoleon and the diplomatic settlement of the Congress of Vienna restored the conservative political and social order in Europe

A time of confrontation of the conservative order with potential sources of unrest found in the forces of liberalism, nationalism, and popular sovereignty

l. Nationalism was pervasive, but was latent where nations were unified; where disunified or there was foreign rule, it became focused --as Italy and Germany. Led by intellectuals, influenced by Herder. Cultural goals became political: a sovereign state representing a people--those speaking the same language, sharing traditions and customs. It soon became revolutionary, with secret societies like Italy's Carbonari; at times it blended with Freemasonry. Joseph Mazzini (1805-1872), Young Italy. 2. In Germany, frustration brought obsession with nationalism--as in the works of the Grimms and Hegel. To Hegel, there was no fixed right or wrong. Reality was a process, with an internal logic. Change was based on the mind's ability to produce opposites--the Dialectic. A thesis would produce its opposite, or antithesis; their fight would ultimately reconcile to form a synthesis. To Hegel, history was the key to unlock meaning. Germans such as Leopold von Ranke founded "scientific" history. "The Germans, said Ranke, had a mission from God to develop a culture and a political system entirely different from those of the French; they were destined to "'create the pure German state corresponding to the genius of the nation.'"

1. Poles and Magyars had long sought political nationhood, but eastern European cultures, as Czech, Slovak, Rumanian, Serb, Croat) were submerged. In the 19th century, patriots demanded the preservation of historic cultures--through folk tales, languages, and history. Russia developed a pan- Slavism, slavophilism, as their version of the German Volksgeist. 2. Conservatism remained strong, based on the institutions of absolute monarchy, aristocracy, and the Church. It built on Burke, whose basic idea was that every people must change its institutions by gradual adaptation. Monarchism returned to the old concept of maintaining "throne and altar". Humanitarianismalso grew, as people were moved by the misery of the poor and the slaves; any degrading of humanity was seen as foreign to true civilization.

1. Wanted to limit the arbitrary power of governments against the persons and property of individual citizens. 2. make moderate changes gradually 3. Those excluded from the existing political process; they were NOT democratic. 4. Hostile to the privileged aristocracy. 5. They were contemptuous of the unpropertied class. 6. From the middle class --> bourgeois. 7. They sought the removal of economic restraints (laissez-faire economics). Classical Liberalism: represented the ideas of men of business, professions. 1. Belief in "modern," efficient, reasonable. Desire parliaments, with responsible government, free press, speech, assembly. Fear or "mob rule"--that is, democracy. 2. Rights of man, but emphasis on property. Favor laissez-faire, limiting government actions. Supported lower tariffs, free trade so each nation could produce what it did best. Progress through wealth, technical change. Anti-military. IN COUNTRIES: -Liberalism was often complimentary to nationalism in Germany, Italy, and the Austrian Empire. -Russia took the lead in suppressing liberal and nationalistic tendencies.

In Britain, the forces of conservatism and reason made accommodations with each other because it had a large commercial and industrial class, a tradition of liberal Whig aristocrats, and a strong respect for civil liberties.

A. Spain (1820) --> unsuccessful. Congress of Verona B. Italy (1821) --> unsuccessful. Congress of Troppau C. Latin America (1804-1823) --> some successful. -- Monroe Doctrine (U.S. policy toward the Western Hemisphere. Buried in a routine annual message delivered to Congress by President James Monroe in December 1823, the doctrine warns European nations that the United States would not tolerate further colonization or puppet monarchs.) -- these revolutions breached the Metternich system for the first time and encouraged other peoples seeking democracy and independence D. Russia (1825) --> Decembrist Revolt; unsuccessful --> "Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Nationalism!" re enforced by Nicholas I. E. France (1830) --> Louis Philippe (liberal middle-class leadership) --> the "Citizen King." After Charles the 10th and his July Ordiances. F. Belgium (1830) --> successful (1839--> Belgium secured international recognition of its independence and neutrality). G. Poland (1830) --> crushed by the Czar. H. Greece (1830) ---> Initial 1821 revolt against Ottoman Turks. 1830 win independence.

---> it achieved some democratic reforms through evolution, not revolution. A. Reform Bill of 1832: -- first to establish the Bourbon family. -- reduced property qualifications for voting so as to enfranchise the middle class. -- took representation away from "rotten" boroughs. -- this bill shifted control of the House of Commons from the landed aristocracy to the commercial and industrial middle class. B. Chartist Movement ("People's Charter") -- members were disenfranchised city workers. -- for universal manhood suffrage. -- equal electoral districts. -- the secret ballot. -- annual elections of Parliament. -- removal of property qualifications for members of Parliament. -- it died out following its failure to secure reforms from Parliament in 1848, but in subsequent reforms bills (1867, 1884, 1911) all of their demands were enacted into law.

***Reaction against rationalist thinking of the Enlightenment/Neo-Classical Empire Style....constricting moral values and ugliness of Industrialization. Impact of Confed. of Rhine - Sparked German Nationalism. Developed last in France.

1. See notes on Romantic writers, philosophers, etc. ~Musicians: Beethoven, Paganini, Chopin, Schubert, Schumann, Liszt ~Artists: Constable, Turner, Delacroix, Friedrich ~Writers/Philosophers: Wordsworth, Coleridge, Byron, Shelley, Keats, Hans Christian Anderson, Brothers Grim, Poe, Goethe A. All literature that failed to observe classical forms and gave free play to imagination. B. Appeal to the inner emotions of humankind for the foundation of religion C. Glorified both the individual person and individual cultures. D. It made a major contribution to the emergence of nationalism by emphasizing the worth of each separate culture. (*Hegel*, *Herder*, *Fichte*) E. A lifestyle in tune with nature. F. Liberation from society's restrictive bonds. G. Idealized the medieval and gothic styles in literature (new genre--> gothic novel) and the arts. I. The senses should acquire knowledge, but it had to be interpreted (*Kant*). A new way of sensing all human experience: Love of the unclassifiable--moods, impressions, experiences, idiosyncrasies. Valued emotions, the subconscious--feeling as well as reason. Love of the mysterious, of strange and distant societies; nostalgia for the middle ages. Concern for the expression of inner genius, which makes its own rules and laws--genius of an individual, a people (Volksgeist), or an epoch (Weltanschauung): Herder.

See Western European Nationalism

German universities were a hotbed of nationalism and republicanism. Assassinations by student activists brought Metternich's Carlsbad Decrees, dissolving student groups and censoring any new ideas.

Russia: The Decembrist Revolt, 1825 -- Alexander died in 1825. A secret society of young officers, influenced by revolutionary ideals, made a brief rebellion in support of the more liberal of two possible successors. These Decembrists were crushed; Nicholas I Romanov took power. He was to rule autocratically for thirty years. The dike was still holding back the revolutionary flood.

Socialism was another answer; many looked back to the ideas of Robespierre and the egalitarian ideals of the First Republic. In Britain, socialism blended with the idea of parliamentary reform in the anti-capitalist mass movement called Chartism. Chartism's goals were to secure universal manhood suffrage and abolition of property qualifications for membership in Parliament. Petitions with millions of signatures were collected, and ignored. Made unpopular by a radical wing favoring force, the movement died out. It did have a major impact on the labor laws of the 1840's, and by 1918 all major provisions of the Chartist program had been accepted.

Any attempt to reform Parliament was blocked by the House of Lords and Wellington. A Whig government pushed reform and the Lords were forced to yield by the threat to create enough new Whig lords to pass the bill. The result was the Reform Bill of 1832: more voters, but only from the middle class; elimination of rotten boroughs and provision for reps from the new industrial cities. The Liberal Party was formed, made up of aristocratic Whigs, radical industrialists, and liberal Tories. The old Tories became the new Conservatives.

the growing desire of landlords to change the traditional ways of production in order to maximize their profits. (ex: enclosure movement)

Political Causes: Enclosure Acts, continental system, stable politics in England. Socio-Economic: Agriculture becomes commercialized, population growth, death rate low, disposable income - increased production of goods. Greater investments in industry! Cultural/Intellectual: Cheap cotton- textile industry. Lowlands impacts development/inventions. Necessity! As in agriculture, Britain took the lead in the Industrial Revolution... Favored as it was by rich deposits of coal and iron ore, a stable political structure, consumer demand from the colonies, a law-tax structure and relative social stability.

Political: Govt agency for policing, prison reform (work camps, "poor houses"), transport bad criminals to Australia, chartists (emergence of political organizations, guilds dismantled), British dominance.

Tended to measure success in monetary terms and were increasingly dissatisfied with their lack of political influence.

Dominated policy discussions in the mid-19c. 1. The attitude of industrialists were strengthened by the new science of "political economy" begun by Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations--a work which had attacked government interference in favor of the natural working out of the laws of production and exchange. Smith was followed by the Manchester School of classical economics which worked out the theory of laissez faire capitalism: a. Free market works according to natural laws--as the law of supply and demand and the law of diminishing returns. b. Each individual must be free to follow his own enlightened self interest. c. Government should do little besides securing life and property through reasonable laws and reliable courts to assure private contracts, debts, and obligations. d. Education and charity should be left to private initiative. 2. David Ricardo: The working man must expect only a bare minimum living. The operation of an *"iron law of wages"* shows that a worker receiving more than a subsistence wage breeds more children, who eat up the excess and reduce the working class again to subsistence 3. Thomas Malthus: The growth of population proceeds geometrically while food production increases more slowly; the surplus population--those who cannot find work--must starve to keep the population in check.

generally applauded the new productive capacity of industrialism but decried industrial mismanagement and thought that human society should be organized as a community rather than merely as a conglomerate of selfish individuals.

believed that class conflict in the 19c had become simplified into a struggle between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat, a struggle which the proletariat would eventually win and which would result in a property-less and class-less society. Marxism --> The Communist Manifesto (1848!!) & Das Kapital. -- historically, the organization of the means of production has always involved conflict between the classes who owned and controlled the means of production and those classes who worked for them. -- only radical social transformation can eliminate the social and economic evils that are inherent in the very structure of production. -- economic interpretation of history. -- class struggle. -- inevitability of communism (capitalism has within it the seeds of its own ultimate destruction).

A series of unsuccessful liberal and national revolutions spread across the continent.

-- food shortages and unemployment. -- a new willingness of political liberals to ally with the working classes in order to put increased pressure on the government, even though the new allies had different aims. -- a movement to create national states that would reorganize or replace existing political entities (nationalism). -- unprecedented economic growth. -- increased influence of socialism as a political force.

--> temporarily successful only. ---Revolt against Louis Phillipe -- Louis Blanc. -- eventual election of Napoleon III and the creation of the Second French Republic, then Second French Empire.

--> unsuccessful -- Bohemians, Italians, and Hungarians (Louis Kossuth). -- these revolutions forced Metternich to flee the country. -- serfdom was abolished.

--> unsuccessful -- Sardinia-Piedmont retained its new liberal constitution. -- Prussia adopted an undemocratic constitution (the conservatives regain control here!).

-- brought about the downfall of Metternich and his "Concert of Europe." -- a republic and universal manhood suffrage in France. -- abolition of serfdom in Austria. -- these revolutions marked the last effort in 19c Europe to overthrow reactionary governments by revolution alone. -- the European middle class ceased to be revolutionary. it became increasingly concerned about the protection of its property against radical political and social movements. -- the political initiative passed from the liberals to the conservatives and socialists.

Parliament passed "Enclosure Acts" by which the old common lands and unfenced fields were enclosed. Small farmers now could not make a living from their own plots, and land ownership became concentrated in the hands o f a relatively small class of wealthy landlords, with land rented out to a small class of substantial farmers. As a result, productivity of land and labor was increased. Labor was released for other pursuits --with country people working as hired hands or as cottage workers under the domestic system. This labor force was thus dependent on daily wages, was mobile, and was available to move to the new cities.

Feminist writer

Conservatives became the new champions of the workers: Factory Act of 1833 was the first to have enforceable child labor laws; Ten Hours Act of 1847, limiting labor hours of women and children--and effectively of men also.

In Britain, the propertied classes (farmers)passed the Corn Laws , a high tariff on grain. A protest meeting in Manchester (by workers) brought an attack on demonstrators by police under Wellington (the "Peterloo Massacre"); Parliament passed the Six Acts, outlawing "seditious and blasphemous" literature, using a stamp act to limit cheap newspapers, allowing the search of private houses, and forbidding demonstrations of any kind.

cottage system

See Classical Economics

French journalist who favored workingman's socialism. Hostile to owners and the bourgeoisie. Prior to the 1848 Revolution he proposed social workshops, directed by laborers working of, by, and for themselves. A Republic was now proclaimed, a "provisional government" established with such leaders as the socialist Louis Blanc and the poet Lamartine. Blanc wanted "national workshops"--state supported, collectivist shops, but bourgeois opposition prevented their effective use, with a political enemy of Blanc chosen as their head. They were used only for unemployment relief--as the number of legitimate unemployed rose rapidly.

The changes in manufacturing methods and the effects of the machine on humanity. They sought the removal of economic restraints (laissez-faire economics)

-- the Renaissance spirit (seeking material goods). -- the scientific approach in solving problems (Scientific Revolution). -- the Commercial Revolution. -- the putting-out (domestic) system.

-- factory system. -- higher standard of living. -- introduction of modern, laissez-faire capitalism: -- private ownership of property. -- free enterprise. -- profit motive. -- competition. -- market economy (Law of Supply and Demand). -- economic competition among nations (protective tariffs). -- labor problems. -- new economic theories --> Adam Smith, Malthus, Ricardo, Mill.

-- rise of the middle and working classes as new political power groups. -- aid to nationalism. -- impetus to imperialism. -- the rise of labor unions as a political force.

-- a more socially dynamic society (with new levels of social classes). -- increase in population. -- growth of cities and the problems resulting from this. -- improved status of women. -- new family patterns. -- more leisure time. -- impetus to universal education. -- humanitarian/social reform movements increase to meet the problems created by industrialization.

A. The government is seen as the representative of the people and owns and operates the major means of production and distribution. B. The government determines the needs of the people and provides goods and services for the people's use. C. The government plans the economy, it allocates capital, directs the flow of raw materials, and provides for the workers according to their needs. D. Utopian Socialists --> Saint-Simon, Owen, Fourier (they lacked any meaningful political following). E. Fabian Socialists --> mostly in Britain. F. SEE MARXISM Socialists shared many views of republicans, but also attacked the power and wealth of owners, private enterprise, and the idea of competition. They wanted communal ownership and social justice, brought about through government action. a. Robert Owen (1771-1858): A Scottish mill owner, he worked to improve the lives of his workers. He is associated with paternalistic capitalism, but he also helped found the co-operative movement and can be regarded as one of the founders of Brit Socialism. b. Henri Comte de Saint-Simon (1760-1825): Nobleman who supported revolutions. Wanted a planned society, with public ownership of equipment and capital. Believed social engineers should plan great projects, coordinate labor and resources for productive uses. c. Charles Fourier (1772-1837): French thinker who wanted to sweep away all existing institutions in favor of a new subdivision, phalansteries of 1620 people where each would follow his natural inclinations. Utopian dreamer; ideas inspired Brook Farm in the US. d. Louis Blanc (1811-1882): French journalist who favored workingman's socialism. Hostile to owners and the bourgeoisie. Prior to the 1848 Revolution he proposed social workshops, directed by laborers working of, by, and for themselves.

The Frankfurt Assembly met from May 1848 to May 1849 to bring a liberal, constitutional government to a united Germany. It was made possible by the collapse of the existing German governments in the March days of 1848. Germany was composed of 39 independent obstacles to unifications--the states recognized by the Congress of Vienna. Austria claimed historic rights in the region; Prussia was composed of the Rhineland, the area around Berlin, West Prussia, Posen, and East Prussia. Prussia was controlled by the Junkers, who lacked German political feelings. 1. German voters elected delegates, but the Assembly proved weak since it represented nothing but an idea-- with no power to issue orders or force compliance, no army or civil service to act. The Assembly was professional, middle class; it opposed violence and revolution, opposed working class upheaval. It needed an alliance with the lower class to work. But when radicals rioted in Frankfurt, the Assembly called in the Prussian army to suppress them. 2. Their major problem: What was "Germany?" Was it the German language zone, or something less? What of Austria? The Assembly divided into Great Germans, wanting union under the Austrian Emperor, and the Little Germans, wanting to exclude Austria and unify under the King of Prussia. Both wanted Schlesswig, included in Denmark; the Assembly called for war but needed Prussia's army; the army refused to act and the Assembly was humiliated. 3. Overall, each revolting nationality had failed to support the others, and the result was victory by the Old Order. In Frankfurt, they wrote a constitution, speaking of the "rights of Germans"--and offered the throne to Frederick William IV. He refused, declaring that he would not "pick up a crown from the gutter." The Assembly disbanded; riots broke out but were suppressed by the army. Liberal nationalism had failed, and a harsher variety would soon replace it. Many liberals and revolutionaries emigrated to the US. 4. Frederick William now issued the Prussian Constitution of 1850. It called for a parliament with two chambers. Elections for the lower house were held with u.m.s, but the richest third elected one-third, the next richest one-third, and the poorest the last third. The Junkers remained in control, with their former serfs turned into free wage earners economically dependent on them.

Hungarian lawyer, journalist, politician and Governor-President of the Kingdom of Hungary during the revolution of 1848-49. News of the February Revolution in Paris brought Magyar nationalist Louis Kossuth to the fore in Hungary. His speech in Budapest was soon heard in Vienna, where it brought an insurrection that drove Metternich from power. Rioting in Berlin led the king of Prussia to promise a constitution, and lesser German governments fell soon. Hungary claimed autonomy within the Empire, and equivalent status was granted to Bohemia by emperor Ferdinand. Milan and Venetia declared their independence, and the people of Florence declared their republic. The king of Piedmont-Sardinia, who had granted a constitution, declared war on Austria and invaded north Italy. Italian unity seemed certain.

Causes: Unclear whether spread through contagion or environmental. Believed to have come from Asia. Gov't Reactions: Quarantine, limited travel, isolated hospitals, towns closed down Popular Reactions: Those with money would flee, people believed in contingent contagion (it was contracted become people deserved it...were lacking morally/religiously...uptick in religious piety, people believed foreigners brought it in, doctors couldn't cure it (rubbing, beeswax, etc.), disease associated with poor/dirty/unhygenic and people of color were stigmatized. Conspiracy theories: some believed it was fake and that gov't or people were intentionally poisoning the water/deliberately killing.

Early 1800s (term first appeared in 1830s)...originally rooted in liberal's enlightenment ideals. Embraced by socialists (women shouldn't be marries, should be independent to avoid becoming property!). Goal was to expand women's rights (in domestic sphere, suffrage, education). French fem movement dies during Napoleon. Abolition subordinated this cause. Division within movement (tactics were flawed). Harriet Taylor and John Stewart Mill