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scientific method

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systematic collection of data through controlled observations so can test hypothesis

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hypothesis

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statement that usually describes the relationship between two variables

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theory

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group of principles or hypotheses that are used to explain phenomenon

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potentially self-correcting

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characteristic of clinical research exchange ideas and information through conferences, meetings, publications and work has to be replicated to try to remove personal bias from theories. peer review journals valued over online publications

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hypothesizing relationship

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characteristic of clinical research try to identify and explain relationships between variables

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operational definitions

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characteristic of clinical research tell you what the variable is and how you plan to measure it

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reliability

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consistency*- consistent results, measures used have to be reliable and valid characteristic of clinical research standard measure of error

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validity

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usefulness- do intelligence tests measure aptitude? characteristic of clinical research

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base rate

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rate of occurrence of behavior in natural environment- natural occurrence of behavior 1. if behavior has low rate, difficult to study it because behavior is rare ex) suicide, schizophrenia, small changes look bigger 2. treatment study, need base rate to analyze change

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statistical vs clinical significance

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research findings have to be statistically significant; even if it is statistically significancy, maybe clinically irrelevant ex) people who successfully plead guilty by reason of insanity are much more likely to have a psychotic disorder; on the other hand, successful plea occurs less than 1% of the time

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Characteristics of clinical research

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potentially self-correcting hypothesizing relationships operational definitions reliability and validity base rates statistical vs clinical significance

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research designs

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case study naturalistic observation correlational approach experimental method longitudinal design epidemiological research meta-anaylsis

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Clinical case history

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in-depth study of someone's life- frequently used by Freud

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advantages of case studies

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not artificial, helps generate hypotheses helps get at material that is difficult to access no manipulation of the data ex) someone with schizophrenia will be watched throughout their life and the researcher will be able to see the disorder unfold

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Disadvantages of case studies

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selectivity: because hx retrospective, memories are distorted, can't replicate the behaviors or generalize beyond individual ex) Freud built a theory on a specific group of people

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naturalistic observations

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observe behaviors in naturally occurring environment

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advantages of naturalistic observations

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see what occurs in "real" life see how people naturally interact- hard to measure interactive processes in P&P tests good for family interactions, marital and family therapy, parent child dynamics

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disadvantages of naturalistic observations

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relies great deal on skill of observer, involves a lot of training- biases cannot make causal inferences- no cause and effect statements generally expensive and time consuming fidelity checks

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Correlations

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examine relationships between variables correlation coefficient: r tells you the strength of relationships (1) tells you the direction of the relationship: +1 to -1- *closer to 1 the stronger the relationship*- dollar value decreases, interests rate increase high self esteem related to high school achievement negative relationship- inverse, as one increases the other decreases positive relationship- variables go in the same direction

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advantage of correlations

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not artificial, avoid ethical problems

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disadvantages of correlations

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cannot examine cause and effect relationships

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Experiment

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designed to look at cause and effect relationships; direct manipulation of the phenomenon interested in

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independent variable

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variable that experimenter manipulates; the "cause"

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dependent variable

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the outcome, the "effect", whats measured

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experimental group

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receives treatment

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control group

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similar to E group except doesn't get IV

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assumption

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experimental group and control are same except for the independent variable

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Sample

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subset of population, selected by either probability or non-probability methods recruitment, pull sample from population interested in*

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probability sampling

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know likelihood that person from population will be selected simple random, systematic random

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simple random sampling

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a form of probability sampling everyone has equal likelihood of being in a study; use random numbers table

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systematic random sampling

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a form of probability sampling select random number (10): every 10th person will be selected- make sure not some bias involved with the 'nth person

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non-probability sampling

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convenience sample snowballing quota sample

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convenience sample

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people who are easily accessible and available to participate

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disadvantage of convenience sample

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no idea how representative this sample is to the interested population

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snowballing

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find few people who are relevant to group you want to study; ask them to refer people to study behavior group is difficult to find, dependent on how large the sample is **the bigger the sample the better representative

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quota sample

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what does population look like based on certain criteria (ex; gender and racial make up of students at GW)- select people based on _______

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random assignment

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each person has equal probability of being assigned to particular group control or independent variable, minimize bias

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matching

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match participants in experimental and control groups based on specific criteria (e.g.; gender, race, SES, etc.) to try to make groups equivalent on all variables except Independent variable

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Operational definitions

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must define a phenomenon in a way that is measurable

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confounds

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nuisance variables that can influence the results

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nonrandom assignments

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people are not randomly assigned to groups

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experimental bias

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experimenter intentionally or unintentionally influences Subjects

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subject bias

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subject behaves a certain way because subject knows he/she are in an experiment

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double-blind

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participants and experimenter don't know what group they are in or what the hypothesis is- control bias can't be done with psychotherapy

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demand characteristics

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characteristics of study induces subjects to behave a certain way because they are trying to figure out what the hypotheses are: rumors of what the hypothesis is setting where study takes place explicit or implicit **random assignments to control for confound experiments

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Validity

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usefulness/ utility internal external ++need perfect balance between internal and external- hybrid experiment

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internal validity

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the extent to which a causal conclusion can be drawn from study

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systematic error

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the more you minimize _____ _____ the more confident you are in your findings

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high internal validity

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more control problem: the more you control the less realistic

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external validity

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extent to which research findings can be generalized to other groups and/or settings advantage: good to have _____ ____ but can't control everything

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Advantages to Experiment

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best method to ascertain cause and effect relationships helps understand etiology can be replicated- the more you control the better it can be replicated

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Disadvantages to Experiment

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artificial maybe impractical and unethical

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Longitudinal Design

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researcher follows group of people for a specific period of time

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advantages of longitudinal design

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can see behavior unfold over time- see natural course of disorder; good if looking at treatment effects

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disadvantages of longitudinal design

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testing effects; very expensive to run ** can be a lot of missing data (people move, die, drop out of experiment etc.)

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epidemiological studies

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study of the distribution and determinants of the frequency of a disorder in the population commonly used in psychology to examine frequency and distribution of psychopathology ex) suicide attempt rates in adolescents in urban vs. rural communities look at prevalence vs incidence

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prevalence

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number of cases that have disorder during particular time period

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incidence

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number of new cases of disorder over specified time frame

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behavioral genetics

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extends tradition genetics research by considering the role of the environment gene X environment interaction

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methods of behavioral genetics

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twin studies- monozygotic vs. dizygotic twins adoption studies

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meta-analysis

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statistical technique for combining studies to improve the reliability of results common in clinical research disadvantage: populations of interest are often small or difficult to sample from

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Ethics

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norms for conducting research; differentiates acceptable and unacceptable research practices APA published a set of ______ standards most researchers have an IRB that evaluates ____ practices of study

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IRB

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weights potential risks and benefits to participation in a study are scientists at institutions of investigators but cannot be involved in the study

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Ethical issues for research

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participation must be voluntary informed consent or assent confidentiality (right to privacy) avoid harm use of deception --> if use deception, have to debrief can rescind participation at any time, even after study is completed

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assessment

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professional gathers information in a systematic manner to obtain knowledge about individuals to make appropriate recommendations ex) a students placement in a class **mental health professional can _____ without testing, psychologists are the only ones that can conduct psychological tests- interview ** theoretical model of abnormality influences types of questions you ask, type of _____ tools you'll use and how you will interpret information **need to answer a referral question to know what diagnosis**

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Referral

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important part of assessment; it is the question that you are being asked to answer by the teacher, parent, client, court system, colleague

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techniques used in assessment

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mental status exam- any mental health professional interview life history records (e.g.; school, medical records) personality tests observations- how clients act in the interview neuropsychological tests intellectual functioning need to yield reliable and valid results

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mental status exam

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relatively quick psychological assessment of client's **current mental state:** based on both clinical observations and self-report from client used as an interview tool provides information for diagnosis and assessment of mental illness **has to be interpreted in context of clients educational, social and cultural background** can defer diagnosis if need more information **this exam determines who assist in a case--> beginning of whats going on and where to go from here

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appearance and behavior

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what does the client look like in front of you? hygiene, anxiety if a stranger saw the client and your notes, they would be able to tell who he/she is by your description

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speech

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clients will usually have a unique way of speaking pressured speech- words are being pushed out, ideas don't come together well atypical speech

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mood

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general, most prevalent emotional state over the last 2 weeks- stable feeling* ___ and affect can be the same but not always

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affect

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current emotional state

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thought

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process: the way the client thinks/ was thinking content: loose associations with what your thinking about- illogical idioms: way of thinking, culturally perspective

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perception and awareness

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hallucination- distortion of perceptions of external reality level of consciousness- respond to pain but not environmental stimuli

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insight

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understand whats going on, why they are at the hospital, why they are taking this exam etc.

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judgement

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is the client making good decisions, reckless decisions, aggressive decisions etc.

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intellectual functioning

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average intelligence age appropriate behavior and language skills

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interview

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an assessment technique involves an interaction between two persons structured and semi-structured

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structured interview

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asks standard set of questions in a standard manner; usually involves checklists (e.g.; SCID= structured clinical interview for DSM disorders); more reliable and valid everyone asks the same questions the more reliable- takes away the problem of skill of interviewer

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semi-structured interview

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ask certain questions but more flexibility in way you ask questions, order in which you ask them and ability to probe for more information ability to build a relationship with the client more flexibility- get more information, follow up will be better, relies much more on the skill of the interviewer

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DSM V cultural formulation

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cultural identity of the client cultural ideas of distress cultural factors related to the social environment cultural influences on the relationship between the client and the mental health professional overall cultural assessment

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cultural identity of the client

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note the clients ethnic or cultural reference groups as well as language abilities and preferences note persons overall cultural group whom the client identifies with- do not assume

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cultural ideas of distress

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note how the identified cultural groups might explain the present symptoms and how these symptoms compare with those experienced by those in the cultural reference group idioms, slang terms

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cultural factors related to the social environment

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note how the cultural reference group might interpret the social stresses, as well as availability of social supports and other resources that may aid treatment are social support systems available?

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cultural influences on the relationship between the client and the mental heath professional

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indicate difference in cultural and social status between the client and mental heath professional that might influence diagnosis and treatment barrier between client and interviewer because of cultural groups

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overall cultural assessment

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summarize how cultural factors and considerations are likely to influence the assessment and treatment of the client summary of culture of client

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reliability

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consistency** of test or technique test-retest internal consistency alternative form inter-rater

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test-retest

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agreement between tests when person takes same test at two different times easiest, testing effects because the test becomes familiar to the participants do not give the test too close together because of testing effects

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internal consistency

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correlate items of test with one another and/or with total score should be related- .7 and above

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alternative form

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equivalent forms of test are given to minimize practice effects different form of the same exam to avoid testing effects

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inter-rater

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see degree to which independent observers agree on ratings of observations train multiple observers, the higher the correlation rate the closer the agreement

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validity

answer

does the test measure what it is supposed to measure? utility/ usefulness of the measure content concurrent predictive construct ecological ** a test can be reliable and not valid but a valid test can be reliable- if its useful can do it consistently** decided by experts in the field

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content

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are items representative of content area

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concurrent

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do items correlate with related but independent behaviors or test scores ex) do items on BDI correlate with items on Reynolds Depression Scale

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predictive

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does test predict future behavior ex) does the SAT predict GPA in college

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construct

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does test *measure theoretical concept* it is supposed to reflect? Compare test to series of tests and/or observations ex) do IQ tests correlate with Achievement tests? job success?

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ecological

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can generalize findings to real world

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objective psychological tests

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standardized measures that are used to assess intellectual abilities, personality, social skills, cognitive skills and vocational interests that are administered in a standard way and use standardization sample results are compared to norm reference group that should be representative of the people who take the test ex) MMPI- objective personality inventory

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standardized sample

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should be representative of the people who you plan to give the test to sample: need to account for the fact that people don't come can generalize to population

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projective tests

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tests have stimuli that are relatively ambiguous more ambigious the stimuli, the more you project your own personality onto the stimuli unstructured, thing asked is ambiguous, project own personality onto stimuli

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types of projective techniques

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association construction expression

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association

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state what stimuli means to you (Rorschach) what the stimuli reminds you of

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construction

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generate story, sentence (TAT) pictures construct a story, sentence completion

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expressive

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express yourself through activity (DAP) draw a person drawing or playing a game

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neuropsychological tests

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assesses general cognitive functioning and specific types of brain damage genreal and specific functioning test (CPT): used to diagnose ADHD: measures sustained attention (maintain consistent focus on continuous activity and selective attention

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general functioning

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intelligence tests, used to generally diagnose everyone does general cognitive functioning

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specific functioning

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continuous performance dependent on the referral question learning disability does this child have ADHD? take a certain test

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selective attention

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ability to focus on relevant stimuli and ignore competing, irrelevant stimuli

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classification systems

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uses a categorical approach or dimensional approach

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categorical approach

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derived from a medical model whereby a "yes/no" approach to diagnose is used

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dimensional approach

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matter of degree; view disorders on a continuum

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DSM V classification systems

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encourages categorical and dimensional perspectives ex) look at symptoms severity, impact of disorder on individuals life

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ICD

answer

developed by the WHO mostly used by European countries has a different code some disorders are in IDC but not in DSM

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DSM V

answer

used in US and Canada

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critique of DSM

answer

strong medical/bio bias validity of process used to select classifications: some politics are involved certain disorders are in ICD but not in DSM: premenstrual dysphoric disorder- women have severe psychological episodes, not in DSM because it can be used to disempower women labels imply that all of persons behavior is abnormal labels lead to people being ostracized labels become self-fulfilling prophecies labels don't necessarily tell you about functioning

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neuro-scientific perspectives

answer

goal is to study underlying mental processes in both persons who have mental illness and those who are mentally healthy to find objective markers involved in pathology to provide more refined tools to: diagnose treat mental disorders validate theoretical constructs ex) studying reward systems (*the underlying mechanism of whats causing a disorder*) - dopamine involved with reward systems in brain addictive drugs involved in release of dopamine in brain- helps understand how addiction is developed and why it is hard to treat

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diagnostic considerations

answer

mental health professionals focus on dimensions and categories to define abnormal behavior and mental disorder

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dimensional approach-neuroscience

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refers to defining abnormal behavior along a continuum

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categorical approach- neuroscience

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large class of frequently observed syndromes or mental disorders derived from a medical model whereby a "yes/no" approach to diagnosis is used

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endo-phenotypes

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stable, internal physiological or psychological markers for a disorder; underlying mechanisms that lie between the gene and the manifestations of the gene in the external environment in the past, look for specific genes linked to symptoms now look for genes that contribute to the emotional regulation problems that may underly the disorder can be neuro-physiolgocial, biochemical, endocrinological, neuroanatomical, cognitive, or neuro-psycholgoical

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endo-phenotype in schizophrenia

answer

in the case of schizophrenia, the overt symptom could be a psychosis, but the underlying phenotypes are a lack of sensory gating and a decline in working memory both of these traits have a clear genetic component

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gene

answer

basic physical and functional unit of heredity made up of DNA, act as instructions to make molecules called proteins Human Genome Project- estimates that humans have 20,000 to 25,000 genes every person has two copies of each gene, one inherited from each parent specific genes are associated with variety of disorders but environment still plays a role in how some genes are manifested

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neurons

answer

smallest unit of CNS, nerve cells that transmit messages throughout the body

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dendrites

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on the end of each cell, has branch like structures that receive signals from other neurons

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axon

answer

sends signals to other neurons electrical impulses travel through brain through neurons neurons don't touch each other

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neurotransmitters

answer

message from one neuron is received via dendrite, then travels down axon on the neuron to axon terminal the tiny bulbs on it that contain chemicals once ____ are released in the synapse, they are taken up by the dendrites of next neuron which relays the message down the axon

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synapse

answer

neurotransmitters are released into space between neurons chemical and electrical

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chemical synapse

answer

change physiological state of next neuron so it's either more likely to create or inhibit an action potential majority of synapses change physiological state of next neuron so its more likely to create or inhibit an action potential

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electrical synapse

answer

conduct nerve impulses faster than chemical synapses but don't increase strength of impulse. often found in systems that need faster possible response ex) defensive reflexes

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action potential

answer

the binding of the neurotransmitter to receptors either causes the neuron to fire electrical impulse (excitatory) or inhibits the impulse (inhibitory)

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excitatory impulse

answer

fire electrical impulse

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inhibitory impulse

answer

inhibits the impulse

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neuronal communication

answer

passing information from one neuron to another involves a number of steps neurotransmitters need to be created and stored action potentials travel down the axon to the terminal neurotransmitter is released into synapse neurotransmitters then bind with specific proteins in the post-synaptic neuron this binding increases (excitatory) or decreases (inhibitory) the likelihood of an action potential synapse returns to neutral and neurotransmitter is removed

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neural imaging

answer

200 trillion connections between neurons understanding these connections on a neural level would be impossible. need ____ ____ to record different types of cortical activity

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EEG

answer

an electroencephalogram a test that detects electrical activity in your brain using small, flat metal discs (electrodes) attached to your scalp brain cells communicate via electrical impulses and are active all the time, even when asleep this activity shows up as wavy lines on an EEG recording main diagnostic test for epilepsy

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CT scan

answer

series of x-rays for many different angles used to diagnose tumors, stroke, bleeding, bone abnormalities, fluid buildup

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MEG

answer

magnetoencephalography maps brain activity by recording magnetic fields produced by neural activity in brain; tends to produce less distorted imagery used to localize tumors during surgery, help researchers understand function of brain less distorted and more accurate than EEG because EEG goes through bone while MEG is done through multiple angles

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PET

answer

measures blood flow in brain that reflects cognitive processes used to diagnose brain tumors, neuron-damaging diseases like alzheimer's

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fMRI

answer

see changes in blood flow that reflect neural activity helps in early diagnosis of strokes; used a lot in research to see what parts of the brain are active during information processing endophenotype**

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brain networks

answer

several areas of the brain work together to coordinate complex functions emotions, cognition, and motor processes psychopathology is similarly complex often not limited to a single area network wide processing disturbance

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default network

answer

part of brain that is active when not focused on outside world and brain is focused on internal tasks (e.g.; self-referentail thought; daydreaming, retrieving memories, creativity) rather than external sensory information- **not focused on external stimuli**

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central executive network

answer

involved with planning, goal setting, directing attention, performing, coding representations in working memory, inhibiting some actions executive dysfunction get a life coach, or software to help organize your life

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salience network

answer

monitoring and noting important changes in biological and cognitive systems; allows brain to function efficiently because focus limited perceptual and cognitive resources on most essential subset of available sensory information brain wired to be efficient, focused

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epigenetics

answer

genes can be modified by experience processes by which genes turn off and on can be passed on to next generation- may not necessarily inherit a gene per se but epigenetic alters how genes turn on or off which affects underlying mechanisms DNA doesn't change, ability to turn off and on changes ex) smoking/ obesity, ancestors behavior affects offspring

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evolutionary perspective

answer

explores: how disorder evolved over time what function behavior may have had helps to explain cultural and gender differences in disorders what motivational factors may have a role in disorders

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historical perspectives

answer

views of abnormal behavior shaped by prevailing world views western time is linear, more future oriented world view shaped by science: abnormality = physical and psychosocial factors

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ancient greek

answer

view the world in terms of elements and humors hippocrates- father of western medicine galen- pioneering anatomical work lead to early descriptions of the brain and cranial nerves documented the senses, movement, and some limbic (fight or flight) activities

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The middle ages

answer

mental illness viewed from a religious perspective inquisition- tortured until admitted he/she was a witch

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Renaissance

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1600s- thomas willis- first person to use term psychology (in English) 1700-1800s discover of electrical activity in the brain systems for transmitting information to/from brain and body localization of function (Gall) ex) Broca's area- speech

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Care for the mentally ill- historically

answer

1700s- cruel treatment of the mentally ill illness put on display 1800s: Benjamin Rush Dorothea Dix 1900s 1950s large mental hospitals 1960s- hospitals began to close in favor of community-based and outpatient treatment

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Benjamin Rush

answer

used bloodletting to treat mental illness tranquilizer chair write first text on psychiatry in America- APA

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Dorothea Dix

answer

lobbied Congress to have land allocated to build mental hospitals mother of modern social work

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20th century perspectives

answer

psychodynamic existential humanistic cognitive behavioral

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psychodynamic approach

answer

**psychological problems are manifested by internal mental conflict you are unaware of most of our problems operate on an unconscious level --> to help a person function better, have to be made aware of material that is unconscious Frued: Psychanalysis

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Frued

answer

3 components of personality: id, ego, superego

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id

answer

childlike, creative, always completely unconscious*, pleasure principle- wants to be gratified

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ego

answer

executive functioning, controls other 2, makes plans, organizes the future, secondary process

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superego

answer

4-6 years old, conscience, good or bad, ego ideal: trying to be a good person weak ego: compromise perception of external reality, impulsive if id over powers, very rule driven primary vs secondary narcissism

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psychodynamic model

answer

anxiety motives much of our behavior realistic, moralistic, neurotic defense mechanisms

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realistic

answer

potential danger in environment*; ego vs external environment

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moralistic

answer

don't live up to own moral standards; superego vs ego- guilt

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neurotic

answer

potential danger internally; id vs ego- intellectually know but hard to stop behaving afraid

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defense mechanisms

answer

designed to ward off neurotic anxiety; **always unconscious** denial- immature projection-immature splitting- immature idealization-immature displacement-immature reaction formation-immature repression intellectualization sublimation altruism the more immature the defense, the more pathological your behavior

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denial

answer

refusal to accept external reality because it is too threatening can be adaptive to help you cope

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projection

answer

attributing ones own unacknowledged unacceptable/unwanted thoughts and emotions to another; includes severe prejudice, jealousy basis of paranoia

question

splitting

answer

problems integrating positive and negative aspects of self & others volatile relationship

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idealization

answer

unconsciously choosing to perceive another individual as having more positive qualities than he or she may actually have

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displacement

answer

defense mechanism that shifts sexual or aggressive impulses to a more acceptable or less threatening target; redirecting emotion to a safer outlet move or displace feelings onto something less threatening

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reaction formation

answer

converting unconscious wishes or impulses that are perceived to be dangerous into their opposites; behavior that is completely the opposite of what one really wants or feels

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repression

answer

memory lapse or lack of awareness of ones own situation and condition; the emotion is conscious, but the idea behind it is absent mature defense- denial, completely unaware but the feelings stay- upset but don't know why, source is unconscious- not resolved

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intellectualization

answer

concentrating on the intellectual components of a situation so as to distance oneself from the associated anxiety-provoking emotions; separation of emotion from ideas keeps feelings in check, bad to intellectualize everything

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sublimation

answer

transformation of negative emotions or instincts into positive actions, behavior, or emotion

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altruism

answer

constructive service to others that brings pleasure and personal satisfaction, service of the ego

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Humanistic

answer

self is the center of the core, reflects individuals perceptions and values when have conflict between perceptions you acquire from personal experience and perception acquire from others = problem --> incongruence and low self-esteem

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humanistic goal

answer

self actualization- reach your fullest potential need unconditional positive regard

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unconditional positive regard

answer

people love you "just because", not for what you do but for you

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conditions of worth

answer

people impose ____ __ _____ on each other, "I'll love you if you do this or if you act this way" conditional positive regard results in an incongruence between your potential and how you view yourself- low self-esteem

question

client centered therapy

answer

carl rogers interaction with the therapist facilities self understanding three characteristics: empathetic understanding- not unique to humanistic unconditional positive regard genuineness and congruence

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Maslow's hierarchy of needs

answer

humanist perspective biological needs must be met before psychological needs survival first, then comfort and mental health as a therapist, if someone is homeless, need to address basic needs and then address mental health

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Greenburg: Emotion focused therapy

answer

humanist perspective emotion is central to the experience of self mindfulness techniques

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Behavioral Perspective

answer

Pavlov Watson Skinner

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Pavlov

answer

Classical conditioning

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Watson

answer

Little Albert extinction training and phobias

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Skinner

answer

operant conditioning

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Classical Conditioning

answer

work on digestive system of dogs if you show a dog a bone it will salivate ring a bell, dog will salivate --> associates bell to the bone (learned) reflex --> evolution

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unconditioned stimuli

answer

will automatically elicit a response, bone

question

unconditioned response

answer

unlearned, a reflex, salivation

question

conditioned stimuli

answer

provide a cue, learn to associate the CS with the UCS dog learns to respond to CS, bell

question

conditioned response

answer

response to CS; always weaker than UCR, salivation

question

acquisition

answer

learning

question

extinction

answer

exposure therapy extinguish phobia by exposing it if you continue to ring the bell but don't pair it with the bone, eventually, bell no longer associated with the bone, so the animal stops responding

question

examples of classical conditioning

answer

beat child with a belt, the belt will elicit fear go to dentist, have bad experience= fear of the dentist avoidance reinforces the behavior, so classical conditioning of phobias

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operant conditioning

answer

reinforcement- increase likelihood it will occur punishment- decrease likelihood it will occur, weakens a behavior positive reinforcement- increase behavior ex) get candy to clean room negative reinforcement- motivated to avoid the situation, strengthens a behavior because a negative condition is stopped or avoided as a consequence of the behavior- increase behavior to stop a negative reaction ex) wear deodorant so don't smell positive punishment- decrease behavior ex) spank to stop disrespectful behavior negative punishment- decrease behavior ex) lose privileges for disobeying parents

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negative reinforcement

answer

strengthens a behavior because a negative condition is stopped or avoided as a consequence of the behavior

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negative punishment

answer

weakens a behavior because a negative condition is introduced or experienced as a consequence of the behavior

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continuous reinforcement

answer

reinforce behavior after each response; helps individual learn quickly- new behavior*

question

partial reinforcement

answer

reinforce behavior after certain number of response or after varied periods of time- harder to learn behavior but also harder to extinguish it ex) gambling best way to maintain a behavior*

question

observational learning

answer

albert bandura --> bobo doll studies better if model more similar to you, children studies

question

evolutionary history

answer

influences behavior particularly fears and phobias

question

Cognitive Behavioral Perspective

answer

dysfunctional thinking underlies dysfunctional behavior individuals with mental disorders often have rigid, inflexible, automatic ways of thinking have negative expectations; see glass as always "half empty" change thinking --> change behavior

question

negative self-efficacy

answer

my behavior doesn't make a difference

question

Beck's Cognitive Distortions

answer

negative views of the world --> negative views about the future --> negative views about oneself -->

question

selective abstraction

answer

Becks Cognitive Distortion when you make conclusions based on only the negative details of an event or situation; only focus on your shortcomings rather than your successes

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overgeneralization

answer

have assumptions based on isolated event that we inappropriately generalize to other events or situations. ex) having a difficult time with your teenager, conclude that you're a bad mother

question

magnification

answer

find yourself focusing more on your mistakes than they truly deserve

question

catastrophizing

answer

believing something is worse than it really is. i woke up late for class; my whole day is ruined

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personalization

answer

this cognitive distortion puts you in a position of relating external events to yourself

question

labeling and mislabeling

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tendency to label and/or mislabel your behavior

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dichotomous thinking

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extreme, or black and white thinking, is a problem because it doesn't allow much room for any imperfections

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demographics

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NIMH estimates that 26% of Americans experience a diagnosable mental disorder in a given year mental disorders cause a reduction in DALY greater than cardiovascular disease or even cancer burden of disease, neuropsychiatric is #1 Prevalence in 2012- 18.8% female, majority starts before the age of 20 American Indian, Alaska native have the highest amount of mental illness major depression starts in adolescence

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26%

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of Americans experience a diagnosable mental disorder in a given year- prevalence: 1/4

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DALY

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disability adjusted life years

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self stigma

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statements we tell ourselves about our mental illness stereotype: all people with mental illness are incompetent prejudice: i have a mental illness so i must be incompetent discrimination: why should I even get a job? Im an incompetent mental patient

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public stigma

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what other people think stereotype: all people with mental illness are dangerous prejudice: i agree, all people with mental illness are dangerous, and so i am afraid of them discrimination: i don't want to be near such people, do not hire them at my job

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prejudice

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assumption of people based on their group

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20%

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of people with mental illness seek treatment

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Perspectives

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behavioral and Experiential neuroscience evolutionary

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behavioral and experiential perspective

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signs and symptoms in pathology

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sign

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*other people observe objectively, clinician looks for signs and person showing symptoms- objective observation*

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symptoms

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not visibly apparent, need observations and experience of the person, can't make diagnosis without experience- subjective

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neuroscience perspective

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how structure and function of brain leads to psychopathology

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evolutionary perspective

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how are ways of being in the world possibly adaptive ex) fear of heights sickle cell anemia- red blood cells sickle, protect you from malaria

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levels of analysis

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cultural/social individual/psychological/cognitive physiological genetic/epigenetic discrete levels vs. integrative perspective

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cultural/social analysis

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*shapes what normal behavior is*

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individual/psychological/cognitive

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abnormal based at this level

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genetic/epigenetic

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across generations

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discrete levels

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culturally relative not culturally unique can occur in other cultures

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biopsychosocial approach

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mental disorders are complex; can't just look at them from one level (e.g.;individual) also look at family, work life, cultural perspectives, diet, exercise, etc anhedonia- depression, not motivated

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culture

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shared, learned behavior that is transmitted from one generation to the next and evolves from complex interaction between individuals and society externally see this in the artifacts, roles, language, and institutions of a people internally see this in the values, beliefs, attitudes, epistemology, and consciousness of a group of people broad definition: focus on ethnographic, demographic, affiliative identities ex) gender identity, race, age, disability, SES, religion, spirituality

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epistemology

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the way of knowing

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evolutionary and cultural perspectives

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cultures have rules for both internal and external experiences what may be common experience in one culture may create anxiety and stress in another historically, look at what is transmitted culturally as social learning process, but can also involve evolution and neurobiological processes as well

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lactose tolerance

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why is milk more common in European than Asian diets? diary products are common source of foods in these regions 98% of people in Sweden have gene that makes them lactose tolerant 88% of whites are lactose tolerant most native americans are not lactose tolerant

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Evolutionary and Cultural perspectives

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intersection of genetics and culture 5-HTT serotonin gene variant: more common in Japanese than westerners could this influence the types of social interactions that people in culture tend to engage in? suggests that environments influence genes and that genes influence environment evolutionary and cultural perspectives help us try to understand what function a disorder may serve and how it developed fear of certain animals

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social vs. physical environment

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humans tend to live in close connection with others disconnect between ancestral and modern environments may be partly responsive for psychopathology close connections may not develop in the first place connections developed but were interrupted e.g.: due to trauma

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Psychopathology

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behavior and processes are maladaptive causes personal distress deviation from cultural and/or statistical norms difficulty connection with the self and environment inability to consider alternative ways of thinking, feeling, and acting

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maladaptive behavior

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a person cannot stop their behavior, doesn't know that it is uncommon ex) person is overly blunt, doesn't realize it, reason they don't have friends

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causes personal distress

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personality disorder- they don't have a problem, everyone else does

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deviation from cultural and/or statistical norms

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ex) depression, someone that is depressed wouldn't participate in social events

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difficulty connecting with the self and the environment

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ex) depression, social anxiety, cannot connect with other people and the environment

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inability to consider alternative ways to think, feel, and act

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critical with personality disorder- do everything the same way even if it doesn't work but can't shift flexibility in your thinking

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universality of psychopathology

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schizophrenia example: prevalence ~1% in all cultures suggests that its part of human condition rather than culturally derived culture could still play a role in how it is manifested or expressed in given community catatonia: common in developing countries hallucinations: see diference in cultures

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experiential perspective

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first person accounts can be valuable research resource used to develop or investigate new treatment strategies ethnopharmacology- how ethnic groups metabolize medication

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