Midterm 2 – Flashcard
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Icon/Founder of the humanist psychology movement
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Carl Rogers
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what kind of therapy did Carl Rogers focus on?
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person/client centered therapy
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Carl Rogers believed in the importance of _______ in the self
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congruence
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Carl Rogers took a ___________ approach
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phenomenological
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Freud viewed motivation in terms of __________, __________, and __________. Rogers, on the other hand considered human motivation to come from ________, ___________, and feelings of __________.
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tension-reduction; the pursuit of pleasure; intra-psychic conflict; personal growth; self-actualization; congruence
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what is this person like
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objective view
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what is it like to be this person
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subjective view
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humanists take ____________ view of people
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subjective
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Humanists believe that people have __________ and are motivated toward _________ and _______________
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free will; growth; fulfillment of potential
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What is Rogers' first proposition?
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All individuals/organisms exist in a continually changing world of experience of which they are the center
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What is Rogers' second proposition?
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The organism reacts to the field as it is experienced and perceived. This perceptual field is "reality" for the individual
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according to Rogers, experience is __________ and perception is ___________
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subjective; reality
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the collection of perceptions that make up experience
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phenomenal field
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Rogers believed that organisms have basic tendency to _______ which requires _______.
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actualize; growth
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what are the requirements for growth according to Carl Rogers?
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genuineness, acceptance, empathy
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Rogers believed everyone could achieve their goals/desires
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self-actualization
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what are the 3 components of self according to Carl Rogers?
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self image, self-esteem, ideal self
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your view of yourself
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self image
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value you place on yourself
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self-esteem
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the self you wish you were
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ideal self
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according to rogers, the self or self-concept is the ________ and _________ pattern of percceptions
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organized; consistent
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according to rogers, the self is the enduring _________________________
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personality structure
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what is the goal for humans according to Rogers?
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to minimize the space between actual and ideal self
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when ideal and actual self are the same
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congruence
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set of cards with personality traits organized by client
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Q-sort technique
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technique that allows clients to assess their own personality (flexible) with consistent statements (fixed)
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Q-sort technique
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two polar-opposite words presented and person responds on a (often 5 point) scale
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Semantic differential
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client selects words that describe self
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adjective checklist
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According to Rogers, a disconnect often exists between the ______ and ___________
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true self; experience
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Roger's believed people sought ___________ by way of congruence
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authenticity
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according to Freud people are motivated by ______ and _________
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aggression; sex
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Roger's recognized maladaptive behaviors as indications of ___________
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dysfunction
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what did Rogers think therapy would help with?
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discovering positive tendencies
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what did Rogers believe the personality process to be?
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a forward looking tendency toward personal growth or self-actualization
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self-actualization can only occur when ________________.
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other needs have been met
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People strive to maintain consistency among _________ to achieve congruence
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self-perceptions
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people desire ________ of their self-perceptions
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verification
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what is the defensive process that humans use according to Rogers?
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subception
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denial of awareness of experiences that challenge self-concept; people may also distort perceptions of experience to comport with self-concept
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subception
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People have a basic need for ______________ according to Rogers
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positive regard
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According to Rogers _____ may be more important than self-actualizing experiences
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positive regard
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what are rogers 2 levels of analysis in development?
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parent-child; internal psychological structure
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what do you need to consider in parent-child analysis according to Rogers?
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is the environment optimal for growth?
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what do you need to consider in analysis of Internal Psychological Structure according to Rogers?
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congruence between true self and experience or denial of self to receive adequate regard
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According to Rogers, ____________ may inhibit the growth of child and may lead to ______________
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conditions of worth; denial of important aspects of the self
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Parenting style: Controlling, rigid, cold
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Authoritarian
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Parenting style: lax, responsive, not demanding
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permissive
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parenting style: detached, responsibility is for basic biological needs only
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uninvolved
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parenting style: firm, but reasonable, consistency, loving and emotionally supportive
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authoritative
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evaluation of the regard one has for oneself
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self-esteem
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According to Rogers, people who experienced a ____________ in their marriage and work roles experienced __________ of well being
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high degree of distress; lower levels
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Rogers believed that the views of self and psychological well being were ________, meaning they could change
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dynamic
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what is growth dependent on according to Rogers?
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positive regard without conditions of worth
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according to Freud, personality was an expression of _________ and __________
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unconscious drive; conflicts
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what is the id (unconscious drives) balanced by according to Freud?
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superego
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what did Rogers believe personality resulted from?
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perceptions of one's phenomenal field that make up the self-concept
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according to Freud, a reservoir of drives and desires
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the unconscious
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Rogers believed the unconscious was _________________. His focus was on ________________
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not a major part of personality; immediate, conscious experience
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According to Freud, people are basically _______ and driven to _____________. In contrast, Rogers believe people are basically _________ and strive toward ____________.
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selfish; satisfy base desires and drives; good; self-actualization
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According to Rogers, mental health is characterized by _______________ without ____________
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openness to experiences; defensiveness
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according to Rogers, as _________ becomes increasingly discrepant, psychopathology increases
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self-experience
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What are the components of a fully functioning person according to Rogers that lead to a fulfilled life?
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open to experience, existential living, trust feelings, creativity
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both positive and negative emotions accepted. Negative feelings not denied, but worked through
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open to experience
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in touch with experiences as they occur, avoiding prejudging and preconceptions. Able to live in the moment
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existential living
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feeling, instincts, and gut-reactions are paid attention to
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trust feelings
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creative thinking and risk taking are features of life
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creativity
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what causes psychopathology according to Rogers?
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personal incongruence
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Rogers believed the therapeutic environment must be conducive to change. What did he think was necessary to facilitate that change?
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reflective listening, client-centered therapy, supportive (not directive)
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you need a __________ to have a successful client-centered therapy
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interpersonal connection
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enables clients to come to own insights in a safe environment
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reflective listening
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what were the 3 necessary conditions for change in therapy according to Rogers
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congruence/genuineness in the therapist, unconditional positive regard, empathic understanding
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deep, caring attitude toward the client
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unconditional positive regard
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therapist desires to understand the meaning of client communications
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empathic understanding
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what validated measure did Rogers use?
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Q-sort technique
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much of Rogers research focused on _____________
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efficacy of therapy
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what are the weaknesses in Rogerian therapy?
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best for high functioning people; does not explain serious psychopathology; drive toward self-actualization not present for many
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intuitive sense of connection, nebulous construct of openness to experience
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Presence
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According to Maslow, people are motivated _____________
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towards potentials
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According to Maslow, psychopathology arises when _______________
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efforts are frustrated
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Maslow was more interested in __________ than basic biological needs
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higher order needs
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higher order needs are expressed when people are ____________or ______________
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being creative; approaching their potential
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Maslow believed more attention should be paid to those _________ but not ___________ such as Mother Theresa
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abnormal; pathological
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what is the order of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs?
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physiological, safety, belonging, self-esteem, self-actualization
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psychology that is congruent with ideas of Rogers and Maslow
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positive psychology
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believed too much emphasis on negative aspects of psychology and overlooks areas of _________ and _____________.
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positive psychology; human strength; resilience
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positive psychotherapy helps people focus on _________ and ________________
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strengths; find meaning
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positive emotions associated with lower levels of ____________
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stress
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exceptionally high level of focus and attention in a specific activity
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flow
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came up with concept of flow
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Csikszentmihalyi
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founder of existentialist movement
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Soren Kierkegaard
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Kierkegaard was obsessed with __________ and laughed in the face of __________
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death; societal illusions
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According to existentialism, _______ is the sickness, ________ is the cure
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despair; dying
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what are the 3 forms of sickness according to existentialists?
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not being conscious of having a self, not willing to be yourself, despair at willing to be oneself
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According to Kierkegaard, what was one possibly remedy to life's meaninglessness?
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Jesus Christ
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according to existentialists what are the two types of truth?
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objective truth, subjective truth
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Did not share Kierkegaard's appreciation of theology. Believed that "God is dead"
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Friedrich Nietzsche
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Believed existentialism is a humanism
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Jean Paul Sartre
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Came up with the idea that existence precedes essense
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Jean Paul Sartre
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givens you cannot change. But doesn't mean you don't have to be defined by them. Ex. Incidences in your life, you can still go on and change
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facticity
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The idea that we have individual personalities. We exist and we define ourselves later...we develop an individual meaning for our essence
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existence precedes essence
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existentialists that recognized the important of meaning while in concentration camps
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Victor Frankl
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Came up with "Man's Search for Meaning"
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Victor Frankl
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existentialist that developed logotherapy
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victor frankl
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meaning therapy—focused on helping people find therapy...deal with their existential neurosis
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logotherapy
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anxiety from being made aware of the fact that you will not be alive forever.
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existential neurosis
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what do existentialists agree upon?
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existence precedes essence; the individual is alone in the world; the individual is responsible for their life; the individual has free will; goal is an authentic existence
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what are the similarities between humanism and existentialism? i.e. what do they agree upon?
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the individual should strive to be authentic; the individual is responsible and has free will; despair results from failing to live up to potential
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Humanists and existentialists disagree on what humans strive towards. Humanists believe people strive ____________, while existentialists believe people strive ____________
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to become better; for meaning
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what are the four things that experimental existential psychology is interested in?
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death; meaning of life; human existence; personal responsibility
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manipulates existential anxiety and the degree to which you are thinking about your death at any given time
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Terror Management Theory
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__________________ buffer some of the existential anxiety by providing meaning in life
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social and cultural institutions
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the Terror Management Theory hypothesis is that if you increase mortality salience you should see an ________ in embrace of cultural institutions and worldviews
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increase
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Thought we needed to create our own moral code and be responsible for the lives we lead.
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Nietzsche
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He thought people should be envious...motivation to get what you want out of life.
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Nietzsche
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Thought alcohol and Christianity got you to deny and denounce your ending
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Nietzsche
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what are the TMT findings? AKA what does increasing mortality salience produce in terms of effects?
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greater fondness for ingroup, greater anxiety in response to blasphemous actions against cultural/religious icons; greater physical aggression towards those who challenge your political beliefs; increased donations to charities that benefit your own ingroups; increased self-esteem is buffer against increased death anxiety
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how we view ourselves is dependent on __________
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culture
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values achievement, attitudes, opinions, individual qualities
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independent self
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Well-defined border between the self and others
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independent self
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self conception overlaps with others important to the self
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interdependent self
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Westerners had _______ brain regions identified when considered traits of themselves verus their mothers, while Chinese has _______ regions activated when considering either
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distinct; same
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rogers believed dysfunction resulted from ________ and _________
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maladaptive behaviors; incongruence
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not a cohesive psychological framework, but has similarities to humanistic psychology
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existentialism
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what is the key focus of existentialism?
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existential anxiety
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explores question of finding meaning when mortality is threatened (psychologically)
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terror management theory
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______ and _________do not share the same meaning across cultures
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Self-concept; self-esteem
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Existentialists have long believed that _________ are a central feature of human experience
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thoughts about death
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who are the major thinkers of trait theories of personality?
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allport, eysenck, cattell
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trait theories are ________, meaning they are data driven
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inherently empirical
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Most of Freud's judgments of personality were ____________
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subjective
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the measures of Rogers were __________ and __________
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not adequate, vague
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_________ are intuitively what we think about when thinking about personality
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Traits
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units of personality often used to describe people
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Traits
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traits are stable __________ and often ___________.
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over time; over situation
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traits are clearly ________________ - one from another
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distinguishable
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People __________ in the amount of any given trait they may possess
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vary
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the idea of a "trait theory" assumes that ___________________.
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people are consistent over time and space
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what are the scientific functions of trait constructs?
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useful because they are descriptive; taxonomy of personality types that describe many people; predictions can be made based on specific traits; can explain particular behaviors
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what are basic assumptions of trait theorists?
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people possess traits that influence responses in specific ways; people are generally as they appear; traits often organize into hierarchical structures
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kind, calm, good natured ----> "warm person"
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hierarchical structures
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Harvard University psychologist
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Gordon Allport
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Gordon Allport highlighted ________________________, which contrasted with the psychoanalytic emphasis on animalistic and neurotic aspects of behavior
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healthy and organized aspects of human behavior
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Gordon Allport believed in giving recognition to ________ before probing the unconscious.
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manifest motives
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Gordon Allport believed that traits are defined by ______, ______________, and _______________
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frequency, intensity, range of situations
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Allport distinguished traits from _____ and ________.
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psychological states; particular behaviors
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According to Allport, gentle is a _______, anxious is a ________, and fidgety is an ___________.
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trait, state, activity
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believed that traits are a basic unit of personality based in the nervous system
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Allport
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According to Allport, what is the structure of personality?
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traits
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What are the trait types according to Allport?
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cardinal trait, central trait, secondary trait
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a trait so pervasive that it mostly, singularly defines the individual
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cardinal trait
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those traits that most define a person
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central traits
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consistent behavioral tendencies that are not as significant. Ex. always wears a baseball cap
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secondary traits
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Consistent patterns in the way people act, think, and feel
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personality traits
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Allport believed that Freud was too focused on ___________ and that Behaviorists were too focused on ____________
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the internal; the external
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identified over 4500 trait terms
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Allport
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According to Allport, behaviors can become independent of original motive. Ex. someone with feelings of inferiority can be originally motivated to not feel inferior and then this evolves into a desire to be the best.
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Functional autonomy
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Idea that in adult life, motives become independent of earlier tension reducing drives from childhood.
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Functional autonomy
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What was once extrinsic and instrumental becomes intrinsic and impelling. An activity once served a drive or some simple needs and now serves the self-image of the person. Ex. What originally began as an effort to reduce hunger or anxiety can become a source of pleasure and motivation in its own right
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functional autonomy
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Allport focused on what kind of research?
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idiographic
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Was interested in the uniqueness of the individual
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Allport
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Allport was more interested in ________ trait organization than ________ differences
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within person; between person
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Allport's Research did not identify and was not concerned with ________________
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universal personality dimensions
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What was allport's main contribution?
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clarified the trait concept
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documented unique and consistent patterns of trait-related behavior
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Allport
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did not allow for identification of general "laws" that explained behavior
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Allpot
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how was Allport's emphasis on idiographic methods received?
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poorly, viewed as unscientific
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_______ trait psychologists put little stock in idiographic studies
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contemporary
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most trait theorists are interested in _____________
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trait dimensions
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groups of traits that cluster together and appear in many people
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trait dimensions
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what are the problems with identifying trait dimensions?
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so many traits, hard to know which traits go together; many traits just naturally appear together; data analytic technique needed to identify trait dimensions
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Statistical tool that identifies when traits (or other things) go together based on response patterns to survey/questionnaire data
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factor analysis
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examines correlations to identify patterns
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factor analysis
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The goal is to take many items and reduce them to fewer items. Takes many manifest items and identifies latent factors
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Factor Analysis
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How trait theorists identify the structures of personality
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factor analysis
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factor analysis identifies _______________ in test responses, but does not answer the question of why this happens
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patterns of covariation
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in factor analysis, researchers must let ________ guide interpretations
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theory
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Statistical technique for taking pieces of information and trying to group them together in meaningful ways
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factor analysis
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E-harmony uses _________ to identify __________________ which people are matched on
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factor analysis; 29 dimensions of compatibility
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factor analysis is ____________, not psychological
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mathematical
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His background in chemistry caused him to recognize the importance of a taxonomy of traits, much like the taxonomy of elements to the physical sciences
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Raymond Cattell
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Believed factor analysis to be the tool that could yield a set of basic "psychological elements"
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Cattell
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how many factors of personality did Cattell identify. How did he do it?
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16; through questionnaires
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what were the two levels of analysis of traits according to Cattell?
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surface traits; source traits
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traits that can be observed "on the surface"
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surface traits
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the 16 factors identified in analysis that are the core personality structures, according to Cattell
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source traits
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Source traits fit into 1 of 3 broad categories. What are they?
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ability traits; temperament traits; dynamic traits
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skills that allow a person to function effectively. Ex. intelligence
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ability traits
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emotion related source traits. Ex. shy
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temperament traits
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source trait associated with excelling and motivation. Ex. expedient
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dynamic traits
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what are the sources of data of Cattell's trait?
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L-Data, Q-Data, OT-Data
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data observable in everyday life - counts or ratings of behaviors
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L-Data
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self-report data collected from questionnaires
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Q-Data
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data collected from objective tests
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OT-Data
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Traits can be influenced by a variety of factors. What are two of the factors?
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State; Roles
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intraperson emotions and mood at a particular point in time
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State
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required areas where rules of functioning are understood. Ex. your job
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roles
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What did Cattell believe about trait's stability?
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Traits are generally stable but subject to the influences of state and roles
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Who was influential in the development of personality tests that identify desired factors often used in hiring such as Myer's-Briggs
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Cattell
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Identifying factors most associated with ________ and ________ are still trying to be identified
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success; leadership
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This persons theorizing addressed all major aspects of personality theory
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Cattell
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His systematic efforts laid a foundation for generations of trait-based researchers. However, his work exerts little impact in contemporary personality science
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Cattell
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Cattell based his theory on ______ which is risky as one's system of doing so may not capture important qualities
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measurement
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Among most cited psychologists of the 20th century; founded and cited Personality and Individual Differences
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Hans Eysenck
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Believed ________ of individual differences were necessary to identify biological foundations of each trait
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Hans Eysenck; reliable measures
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Hans Eysenck recognized the value of understanding ___________ of traits
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biology
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Eysenck preferred ____________ and felt 16 factors are difficult to keep track of
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parsimony
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Eysenck narrowed personality to 3 Superfactors. What are they?
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Introversion-Extraversion; Neuroticism vs Emotional Stability; Psychoticism
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what did Eysenck use to identify his superfactors?
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factor analyses and "secondary" factor analyses
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believed inter-correlations among factor can themselves be factor-analyzed
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Eysenck
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What were the 2 dimensions that traits varied along according to Eysenck?
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introvert/extrovert; stable/unstable
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Eysenck believed that traits are _________ which allowed him to represent them as independent dimensions
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uncorrelated
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Eysenck added a third dimension of _________
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psychoticism
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abnormal qualities, including aggressiveness, a lack of empathy, interpersonal coldness, and antisocial behavioral tendencies
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psychoticism
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What did Eysenck believe about introverts?
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They are likely more sensitive to arousal and thus seek less stimulating environment
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Came up with lemon drop test where introverts produce more saliva which was evidence of greater reactivity to stimuli
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Eyesenck
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controls amount of saliva produced to stimuli
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reticular activating system
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what was the objective measure that Eysenck used to support his idea about introverts?
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Lemon Drop Test
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study that found that extroverts most often chose to study in library locations tat provided external stimulation than did introverts; took more study breaks than introverts; preferred a higher level of noise and for more socializing opportunities while studying than did introverts
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Campbell and Hawley
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Eyesenck believed _________ was associated with neuroticism
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limbic system
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Eyesenck believed the _____ would respond more quickly in neurotic people when a novel or dangerous situation arose and that they would return to ________ more slowly.
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autonomic nervous system; homeostasis
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personality characterized by being jumpy and stressed
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neurotic
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According to Kahoe et al., extraverts displayed lower levels of arousal in the _________, but higher levels of arousal in the ________
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cerebellum, insula
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the prefrontal cortext is highly inteconnected with the __________
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limbic system
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According to Kahoe et. al, activity was higher in __________ for neurotic people
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prefrontal cortex
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people with higher levels of psychoticism have higher levels of ___________ neural activity
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dopamine-based
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what did Eyesenck believe about psychopathology?
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genetics associated with predispositions, not destiny; psychopathology can be helped with therapy
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Eyesenck believed people could change by:
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avoiding traumatic situations; unlearning fear responses; learning appropriate social conduct
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Believed genes and environment are always interacting and believed in reaction range
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Eyesenck
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What did Eysenck believe about intelligence?
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it is largely inherited
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range of genetic possibility, determined by environment
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reaction range
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what are the critiques of Eyesenck?
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lack of consistent support for biological based theories; there may be more than 2 or 3 factors to describe personality
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Kehoe et. al study used fMRI to explore brain acitivity in a group of 23 women who differed in ___________ and ________________
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extraversion; neuroticism
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Some individual differences are particularly important to interpersonal transactions
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fundamental lexical hypothesis
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The idea that important characteristics will become part of language to help describe and understand our own behavior and others behavior
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fundamental lexical hypothesis
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existence of traits and similar language describing them across cultures suggests an evolutionary aspect to trait development. Traits evolved because they were particularly useful across cultures.
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fundamental lexical hypothesis
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Suggests that all personality traits should be related to one of the underlying 5 factors and should exist across cultures
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The Big Five Across Cultures
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theory that says traits are fundamental that cannot be reduced down to a small number
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big five factor model
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what is one of the difficulties with measuring constructs across cultures?
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translations
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_________ can impose factors on people that may not exist naturally
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language
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___________ are often very different in different cultures
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nature of interactions
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Research in more than __________ shows supports of the 5 Factor Model
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50 different cultures
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240 item measure that is computer scored; translated into multiple languages. Used for 5 factor model
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NEO-PI-R
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In Dutch, the "openness" factor included items related to _______ and ____________.
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unconventionality; rebeliousness
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what country has little evidence for neuroticism?
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Italy
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attempts to describe the science of personality traits in everyday language
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five-factor model
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simple, coherent taxonomy of traits
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five factor model
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factors of five-factor analysis are identified using this
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factor analysis
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what are the Big-5 Factors?
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Openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism
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Curious, broad interests, creative, original, not traditional
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Openness to Experience
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Assesses proactive seeking and appreciation of experience for its own sake, tolerant of ambiguity
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Openness to Experience
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affects openness to experience factor; may be permanent
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magic mushrooms
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Sociable, active, talkative, person-oriented, optimistic, fun-loving
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extraversion
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Assesses quantity and intensity of interpersonal interaction, activity, need for stimulation
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Extraversion
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Soft-hearted, good-natured, trusting, helpful, forgiving
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Agreeableness
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Assesses quality of one's interpersonal orientation along a continuum from compassion to antagonism in thoughts, feelings, and behaviors
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Agreeableness
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Worry filled, nervous, overly emotional, insecure, feelings of inadequacy
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Neuroticism
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Assesses emotional adjustment versus emotional instability.
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Neuroticism
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Identified individuals prone to psychological problems
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Neuroticism
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more brain volume in frontal cortex that contributes to information about rewards
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higher extraversion
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greater volume in areas associated with assessing environmental threats
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higher neuroticism
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more volume in frontal cortex areas associated with planning and rules
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conscientiousness
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which trait is the most heritable, which is the least?
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openness to experience, agreeableness
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how is the five factor model measured?
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NEO-PI-R
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what were the 3 factors that were originally recognized by NEO-PI-R? which came later?
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NEO; Agreeableness/Conscientiousness
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each of the five factors consists of __________
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six facets
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how many items does Neo consist of?
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240
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how are NEO items measured
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each facet has 8 question; each factor has 6 facets; five factors = 5 x 6 x 8 = 240
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Eyesenck's __________ superfactor shows negative correlation with conscientiousness and agreeableness
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psychoticism
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Cattell's Venturesome, Assertive, Outgoing scales correlate with _________ on the big 5.
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extraversion
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High agreement between self and __________ rating and self and ________ ratings on NEO
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spouse; peer
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sometimes better predictor of behavior and/or performance than self ratings
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obeserver data
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self ratings
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S Data
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extends the Big Five model; moves the factors beyond description
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five factor theory
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five factor theory focuses not just on ____________ but instead on ____________
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psychological constructs; factors that "exist"
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in terms of evaluating five factor theory, what is difficult?
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linking personality structures to personality processes
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what are two problems with the five factor model?
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does not sufficiently consider social factors; assumes all individuals possess each of the five factors
question
evidence suggests that traits are influenced by ___________ which is highly influenced by _________
answer
temperament; genetics
question
__________ due to an interaction between nature and nurture
answer
personality stability
question
5-factor theory overweights _____________________
answer
role of genetics
question
according to five factor, childhood personality is less __________ but more ____________
answer
integrated; complex
question
What is neuroticism broken down into in childhood? Extraversion?
answer
fearfulness and irritability; socialability and activity
question
measuring stability of five factors requires ____________
answer
longitudinal approach
question
Research findings for stability of five factors found that:
answer
personality traits generally stable; some individuals change more than others
question
some traits are more _________ than others
answer
age-dependent
question
antisocial behavior more common in ________ indicating low conscientiousness
answer
young males
question
traits that consistently increases as people age. This change is consistently observed across cultures.
answer
Conscientiousness
question
what was the sixth factor added recently to the five factor model
answer
honesty/humility
question
what are the strengths of the big 5?
answer
widely recognized and accepted; used in a variety of settings such as clinical and employment; useful in predicting job performance
question
five factor model and five factor theory fail to specify the ________ by which traits influence behavior
answer
dynamic processes
question
trait theories generally not very ___________. BUT are highly ________, ___________, and are _____________
answer
systematic; testable, predict behavior, stable over time
question
trait theories lack connection to ____________ and do not deal effectively with __________ as they focus on existence of traits in large samples
answer
personality processes; individuals
question
five factor is limited in ___________ because there is no associated five-factor therapy
answer
clinical usefulness
question
widely used measure for personality assessment in both clinical and research
answer
trait theories
