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Philosophy

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love of wisdom

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innate ideas

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theory when created have knowledge built into us

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Metaphysics

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"beyond physics" philosophical notification of beyond science. What is reality?

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Epistemology

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"knowledge" philosophical study of knowledge; basic questions. What is knowledge? Where does knowledge come from?

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Axialogy

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"values" philosophical study of values; opinions, standards. What are values?

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Ethics

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moral beliefs. What are moral values?

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Logic

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study of principles of reasoning

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Philosophical Method

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the attempt to answer, using reason to basic questions about a subject

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What do you mean?

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1. desire for clarification; clarification exploration 2. exploring theoretical connections 3. Practical conventions - ideas have consequence 4. self-exploration

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Willard Von Quine

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the web of beliefs; our ideas don't exist in isolation, but have connection to other ideas. EX: inter connecting with your beliefs

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Socrates

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asked detailed questions about values and gods; he wanted people to examine themselves

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Nihilism

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a person who believes in nothing (no purpose of meaning)

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The main points of Dr. Reilly's first essay:

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MORAL WORTHINESS DEPENDS ON SOME DEGREE OF AWARENESS OF WHAT ONE IS DOING AND WHY; how good can a person be who has understanding of what goodness is; now what of a person chooses to follow orders; no shame in being wrong

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The examples Dr. Reilly uses in first essay:

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robot; soldier obeying commands; Gods scriptures

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The main points of Dr. Reilly's second essay:

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"Who are we to question God?", the beliefs we've been taught about God

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The examples Dr. Reilly uses in second essay:

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Abraham questioning God in the bible, students pointing out Job; engaging in what we believe and understanding others

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How do you know?

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Why you believe?

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The Ideal of Reason:

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the attempt to find reasons/ justifications/ evidence that have a universal necessity, such that anyone who understands those reasons will be compelled by their own intelligence to accept them. Ex: 2+2= 4 everyone agrees with it

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Two types of "good" Philosophical Evidence:

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Empirical Evidence and Basic Principles of Rationality

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Empirical Evidence:

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evidence that comes from experience/ observations that can be experienced by everyone

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Basic Principle of Rationality:

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there are certain principles that we make of to interpret the world

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Principle of Universal Causation:

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every event has a cause

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Principle of Induction:

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the future will resemble the past. Cause and effect relationships have been observed in the past will continue in the same way always and everywhere

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Principle of Non-Contradiction:

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no statement can be both true and false [at the same time, the same way, in the same place.] A statement and its denial cannot both be true [at the same time, way, and place.]

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(Importance) Principle of Non-Contradiction:

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It does not make sense to think of any statement as being true or false, if that statement can be both true and false in exactly the same time, place, and way

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Main Purpose of Thomas Jefferson's letter to John Adams for "Why a Declaration of Independence":

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To place before mankind the subject in terms so plain and firm as to command their assent.

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"The Naturalistic Fallacy" Passage Main Points:

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refers to any argument that tries to deduce a conclusion about how the world ought to be solely from statements about what is natural

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"The Naturalistic Fallacy" Examples:

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homosexuality, multiple sex partners for a man, cheating on wife, swallowing jewelry

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Valid

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if the premises are assumed to be true, then the conclusion must be true.

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Sound

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valid and all true premises

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Counter Example Method

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for testing validity

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The Naturalistic Fallacy

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any attempt to prove that something is morally good or bad solely on the basis of whether it is natural or unnatural, commits a fallacy (logical mistake)

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(X) is natural:

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therefore (X) is good

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(X) is unnatural:

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therefore (X) is bad

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Even if it is possible to show in some objective way that a certain behavior is natural or unnatural,

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that fact itself is not enough to prove that the behavior is morally good or bad

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Cultural Relativism:

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descriptive theory: there are no moral judgements that are universally believed; each society has its own unique combination of moral benefits

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Ethical Relativism:

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prescriptive (normative) theory: there are no moral judgements that are universally believed, and what each society believes is true about morality is true for them; and therefore no society should attempt to impose its values on any other

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Conventional Ethical Relativism:

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the truth of morality depends on society

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Subjective Ethical Relativism:

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the truth of morality depends on the individual

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Ethical Nihilism:

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morality is just an illusion; there is no right or wrong

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The philosophical study of moral values is called:

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Ethics

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Which area of philosophy studies the nature of knowledge?

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Epistemology

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Which area of philosophy speculates about the fundamental nature of reality?

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Metaphysics

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Which philosopher's motto was "Know Thyself!"?

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Socrates

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The philosopher Willard Quine suggested that our ideas can be thought of as existing in a metaphorical ....... of beliefs?

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web

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What did Quine mean by this metaphor?

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That every idea is connected by lines of inference to other ideas.

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Which of the following best expresses the Principle of Universal Causation?

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Every event has a cause.

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Which philosopher did Dr. Reilly quote as giving the best expression of the "ideal of reason"?

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Thomas Jefferson

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What exactly did this philosopher say the ideal was?

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To place before mankind the common sense of the subject in terms to plain and firm as to command their assent.

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Which principle is, according to Dr. Reilly, the most fundamental principle of rationality?

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Principle of Non-Contradiction

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Which of the following statements best summarizes why this principle is fundamental?

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Without this principle, it does not make sense to say that any statement is true or false.

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In the essay On Talking About Ethics, which of the following examples was NOT used to illustrate the importance of ethical thought?

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None of the above; that is, all of them were used.

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The Counterexample Method is a method that philosophers use to prove:

answer

that the reasoning of an argument is invalid.

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Which of the following best summarizes why, fundamentally, the naturalistic fallacy is considered a fallacy?

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Even if an action is natural or unnatural, that fact by itself is not enough to prove whether or not the action is good or bad.

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Which of the following best expresses the main point of Dr. Reilly's essay on Questioning God?

answer

Since we do not exist in isolation from each other, we have a responsibility to rationally reflect on our beliefs and consider how they may affect others.

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In his easy on Questioning God Dr. Reilly argues that we are not like islands, but more like:

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pieces of a puzzle

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Which of the following is NOT one of the five traits that, according to Polman, moral principles should probably have?

answer

Reflectivity

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To say that a moral principle must have the characteristic of ........ means that it must be workable; that is, must be possible for a person to live according to the principle.

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Practicability

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To say that a moral principle must have the characteristic of .......... means that it must apply to anyone who is in a similar situation.

answer

Universalizability

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What is the Sanskrit term for morality?

answer

Dharma

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Argument from Undecidability:

answer

1. In arguments about reality, there seems to be no objective way of determining the truth 2. The most plausible explanation for this is that there is no objective truth about morality; i.e. ethical nihilism is true Therefore: Ethical Nihilism is probably true.

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Ethical Skepticism:

answer

we don't know for certain what the truth about morality is

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Missing the Point Fallacy:

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arguer draws the wrong conclusion from the premises

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Fundamental Ethical Judgements:

answer

a general moral principle that does not depend on any particular facts

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Derivative Ethical Judgements:

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a moral judgement that is based on a combination of a fundamental ethical judgment with particular facts about a situation. Ex: 1. It is wrong to kill needless kill an innocent person. 2. Bob is a murderer; he is not innocent Therefore, It is wrong to kill Bob

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Herodotus

answer

Historian; king invites 2 groups to talk about what they do to the dead, burn and eat, shared fundamental beliefs

question

James Rachels: 3 Universal

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1. Prohibition against murder. 2. Prohibition against lying. 3. Policy of caring for the children. 1. Cultural Relativism may simply not be true; at least, not to the extent that relativists typically claim. 2. Many differences of opinion about morality are not disagreements about fundamental values; there are differences about the facts (biology, psychology, metaphysics, religion) 3. A person who criticizes the moral judgements of another person or society, is to necessary guilty of arrogance; of trying to impose his/her values on them. What they may really be disagreeing about are facts, not the values

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What is the difference between moral vs. non-moral values?

answer

1. moral values: maximizing utility 2. non-moral values: mental states of pleasure and/or avoiding pain (ex: utility)

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What are 5 traits, according to Polman, that a moral principle should have?

answer

-Prescriptivity -Universalizability -Overridingness -Publicity -Practicability

question

What are the 5 purposes of morality?

answer

-to keep society from falling apart -to ameliorate human suffering -to promote human flourishing -to resolve conflicts of interest in just and orderly ways -to assign praise and blame, reward the good and punish the guilty

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What is Philosophical Method, as defined by Dr. Reilly?

answer

The attempt to answer using reason; two basic questions about a subject.

question

What are: the 2 Basic Philosophical Questions?

answer

What do you mean? How do you know?

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Ideal of Reason:

answer

Attempting to find reasons/justification/evidence that have a universal necessity such that anyone who understands those reasons will be compelled by their own intelligence to accept them. (ex. Mathematics)

question

The 2 types of good philosophical evidence?

answer

Empirical Evidence: evidence from experience (Aliens) Basic Principles of Rationality -Principle of Universal Causation -Principle of Induction -Principle of Non-Contradiction

question

The 4 "dimensions" of meaning?

answer

1. Desire for clarification; clarification exploration 2. Exploring theoretical connections 3. Practical connections( exploring of ideas) - ideas have consequence 4. Self -exploration

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What is the principle of induction?

answer

-the future resemble the past -casual relationships that have been observed in the past will continue in the same way always and everywhere EX: What direction will the sun rise? = always in the East

question

The principle of Universal Causation?

answer

-every event has a cause -nothing happens without a cause EX: Alarm clock blinking therefore the power went out.

question

The principle of Non-Contradiction?

answer

No statement can be both true and false at the same time

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Which principle, according to Dr. Reilly, is the most fundamental principle of rationality? Why?

answer

Principle of Non-Contradiction -It does not make sense to think of any statement as being true or false

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Why is it important to study ethics?

answer

-To gain understanding of why one should act as one does: of what one might call the moral dimension of life. -It is about learning what it means to be a good person.

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Why is it important if one wants to be a good person?

answer

Realization that we need forgiveness and vice versa.

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What is the Main point of his essay "On Talking about Ethics"?

answer

The importance of ethical thought

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What is the Main point of his essay "On Questioning God"? Why do we have a duty to question our beliefs even about God?

answer

Since we do not exist in isolation from each other, we have a responsibility to rationally reflect on our beliefs and consider how they may affect others.

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What, basically, are the 2 things one can look at when analyzing an argument?

answer

Validity and Soundness

question

Counterexample Method

answer

consists of isolating the form of an argument and then constructing a substitution instance having true premises and a false conclusion; which proves the form invalid

question

What is the Counterexample Method for testing validity?

answer

To say that an argument is valid means that if the premises are assumed to be true, then conclusion must be true

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What kind of argument makes a good Counterexample?

answer

A simple argument with the same structure as the argument being considered and that has obviously true premises and a false conclusion.

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What does it mean to say that an argument is "valid"?

answer

If the premises are true then the conclusion must be true

question

What does it mean to say that an argument is "invalid"?

answer

A deductive argument where it is possible for the premises to be true and the conclusion to be false

question

What does it mean to say that an argument is "sound"?

answer

valid and all true premises

question

What does it means to say that an argument is "unsound"?

answer

invalid or at least one false premise

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What is a "fallacy"?

answer

any mistake in reasoning

question

What is the Naturalistic Fallacy?

answer

any argument that tries to deduce a conclusion about how the world OUGHT to be soley from statements about what IS natural.

question

What is the fundamental reason why philosophers consider it a fallacy?

answer

Even if a certain behavior can be shown to be natural/unnatural in some sense, that is still not enough to prove (by itself) that the behavior is right/wrong.

question

What are some counter-examples that show why Appeals to Nature are considered (in moral arguments) fallacious?

answer

(X) is natural = therefore, (X) is good (X) is unnatural = therefore, (X) is bad

question

What is the difference between Descriptive and Prescriptive Theories?

answer

Descriptive describes and prescriptive tells how to make it better

question

What is Cultural Relativism?

answer

(descriptive) There is not a single moral judgement which is universally agreed upon. Every society has its own unique constellation of moral beliefs.

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What is Conventional Ethical Relativism?

answer

the truth of morality depends on society

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What is Ethical Nihilism?

answer

There is no such thing as moral rightness or wrongness; there are no moral values.

question

What is Ethical Objectivism?

answer

the view that there are at least some moral arguments which are true for everyone

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What is Ethical Skepticism?

answer

We do not know for certain what the truth about morality is. Objections

question

What is the basic argument for Ethical Relativism (ex: the Argument from Cultural Diversity)?

answer

-There is no set right and wrong. There would be no ethical progression if we followed that society says/ Who decides what a culture considers normal?

question

What are some of the problems with Ethical Relativism?

answer

1) There is no intrinsic value 2) We are questioning our own commitments

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Diversity Thesis

answer

A description that acknowledges the fact that moral rules differ from culture to culture.

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Dependency Thesis

answer

What is morally right or wrong depends on what the society excepts as right or wrong

question

What is the "Flat Earth" counter-example?

answer

1. There are no scientific facts that are universally believed. -Therefore, there are no scientific facts that are universally true. 2. There are no religious doctrine that are universally believed. -Therefore, there are no religious doctrines that are universally true.

question

What are the 2 types of Ethical Relativism distinguished by Pojman?

answer

Conventional: the validity of moral principles depends on cultural approval Subjective: virtue or the moral good is relative to individual perception

question

*What is the argument from Undecidability? What are some counter-examples to this argument? What position, according to Dr. Reilly, does this argument actually support?

answer

• no objective way of resolving moral disputes; that is no objective principles or methods to appeal to. • the most plausible explanation for premise is that there is no objective basis to morality -Therefore, Ethical Nihilism is probably true. -Therefore, Ethical Skepticism: we don't know for certain what the truth about morality is

question

What are the 3 values that are universal according to James Rachels?

answer

1. Prohibition against murder. 2. Prohibition against lying. 3. Policy of caring for the children.

question

Fundamental Ethical Judgement:

answer

ethical principal that does not depend on any particular facts/beliefs

question

Derivative Ethical Judgement:

answer

a moral judgement that is based on a combo of a fundamental ethical judgement and some particular facts or beliefs about a situation

question

In class, Dr. Reilly used this distinction to argue what? What were the main point of this argument?

answer

People disagree about reality not morality. • cultural relativism: may simply not be true; or at least not to the extent relativists claim • many moral disagreements are in fact disagreements about non-moral facts (psychology/biology) and not about fundamental moral judgements • a person who criticizes another society is not necessarily attempting to impose his/her values on them.

question

What is Logical Positivism?

answer

combining logic and experience (general name for the verification principle)

question

What is the Verification Principle?

answer

A statement is cognitively meaningful if and only if it is either analytic or (in principle) empirically verifiable.

question

What does "cognitively meaningful" mean?

answer

makes sense to think of it as being true or false

question

What kinds of statements are "analytic"?

answer

statement known to be true or false on the basis of mathematical reasoning

question

What kinds of statements are "in principle empirically verifiable"?

answer

statement based on observation

question

What is the conclusion of Logical Positivism regarding moral statements?

answer

regarding moral statements if you can't test a statement, it has no meaning

question

What are some problems with the Verification Principle?

answer

fails its own meaning when applied to itself

question

Why, if the principle is true, is the Principle of induction cognitively meaningless? If so, what does this mean regarding science?

answer

The principle of induction cannot be proven by pure logic or math reasoning. The principle of induction cannot be proven by observation or experience. Therefore if these are the only two ways to prove something, the principle of induction is cognitively meaningless. -if the verification principle is true, scientific theories are cognitively meaningless

question

What is scientism?

answer

only science is meaningful (worship of science)

question

Louis Pojman

answer

Against moral relativism in favor of moral objectivism. He first analyzes the structure of ethical relativism as constituted by two theses: the diversity thesis the dependency thesis

question

Herodotus

answer

"custom is king"

question

James Rachels

answer

-Prohibition against murder -Prohibition against lying -Policy of caring for the children

question

Thomas Jefferson

answer

An empire of small farmers "Gives the best expression of the 'ideal of reason.'" -Dr. Reilly To place before mankind the common sense of the subject in terms to plain and firm as to command their assent.

question

David Hume

answer

Scottish philosopher whose skeptical philosophy restricted human knowledge to that which can be perceived by the senses (1711-1776)

question

Socrates

answer

"Know thyself." (borrowed from temple deplhi) "The unexamined life is not worth living."

question

Thomas Hobbes

answer

Englishman who wrote that man is "nasty and brutish" in nature and needs a central authority to keep order or society would break down. Wrote Leviathan

question

John Donne

answer

"No man is an island."

question

A.J. Ayer

answer

Logical Positivism

question

Frederich Neitzsche

answer

God is dead; slave morality; will to power

question

Williard Von Quine

answer

-Suggested that our ideas can be thought of as existing in a metaphorical web of beliefs -Every idea being connected by lines of inference to other ideas

question

Spinoza

answer

Believed the ability to understand is independent of experience; Believed god was nature, and nature was everything, therefore believed for was the universe. "Laughter is pure joy."

question

Which view holds that morality is just an illusion; that there is no such thing as "right" or "wrong"?

answer

Ethical Nihilism

question

Which view holds that there are at least some universal moral truths?

answer

Ethical Objectivism

question

Which Greek historian observed that "Custom is king"?

answer

Herodotus

question

Which type of Ethical Relativism holds that moral truths depend on the preferences of the individual?

answer

Subjective Ethical Relativism

question

According to Dr. Reilly, many differences of opinion about morality are at the level of:

answer

Derivative Ethical Judgements

question

Which philosopher defended a form of subjective ethical relativism?

answer

Frederich Neitzche

question

What is the term for any theory that simply tries to say what the world is like without making any sort of evaluative judgement?

answer

descriptive

question

According to the Argument from Undecidability, Ethical Relativism is the most plausible explanation for:

answer

the fact that moral disputes seem incapable of objective resolution

question

Which of the following arguments commits the naturalistic fallacy?

answer

Adult male dolphins often have sexual relations with young males. Therefore, such relationships are natural and morally acceptable.

question

Which of the following best expresses the main point of Dr. Reilly's essay "On Talking About Ethics"?

answer

A person who does the right thing with no understanding of why they are doing it is not truly a morally person.

Ethics Lecture #1 Notes – Flashcards

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