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Models of Abnormality

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perspectives used to explain events Each model spells out basic assumptions, gives order to the field under study, and sets guidelines for investigation Models influence what investigators observe, the questions they ask, the information they seek, and how they interpret this information

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Past Models of Abnormality

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Until recently, clinical scientists of a given place and time tended to agree on a single model of abnormality - a model greatly influenced by the beliefs of their culture Today several models are used to explain and treat abnormal functioning Sometimes in conflict, each model focuses on one aspect of human functioning and no single model can explain all aspects of abnormality

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The Biological Model

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Adopts a medical perspective Main focus is that psychological abnormality is an illness brought on by malfunctioning parts of the organism Typically points to problems in anatomy or brain chemistry

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Genetics

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Abnormalities in brain anatomy or chemistry are sometimes the result of genetic inheritance Each cell in the human body contains 23 pairs of chromosomes, each with numerous genes that control the characteristics and traits a person inherits Studies suggest that inheritance plays a part in mood disorders, schizophrenia, and other mental disorders Appears that in most cases several genes combine to produce our actions and reactions

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Evolution

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Evolutionary theorists argue that human reactions and the genes responsible for them have survived over the course of time because they have helped individuals thrive and adapt Example: The fear response In today's world, however, those genes and reactions may not be so adaptive

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Viral Infections

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Another possible source of abnormal brain structure or biochemical dysfunction is viral infections Example: Schizophrenia and prenatal viral exposure Interest in viral explanations of psychological disorders has been growing in the past decade Example: Anxiety and mood disorders

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Biological treatments

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Biological practitioners attempt to pinpoint the physical source of dysfunction to determine the course of treatment Three types of biological treatment: Drug therapy Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) Psychosurgery

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Drug Therapy

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1950s = advent of psychotropic medications: greatly changed the outlook for a number of mental disorders Four major drug groups: Antianxiety drugs (anxiolytics; minor tranquilizers) Antidepressant drugs Antibipolar drugs (mood stabilizers) Antipsychotic drugs

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Strengths of Biological Model

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Enjoys considerable respect in the field Constantly produces valuable new information Treatments bring great relief

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Weaknesses of Biological Model

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Can limit, rather than enhance, our understanding Too simplistic Treatments produce significant undesirable (negative) effects

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Psychodynamic Model

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Oldest and most famous psychological model Based on belief that a person's behavior (whether normal or abnormal) is determined largely by underlying dynamic - that is, interacting - psychological forces of which she or he is not consciously aware Abnormal symptoms are the result of conflict among these forces Father of psychodynamic theory and psychoanalytic therapy: Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)

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How Did Freud Explain Normal and Abnormal Functioning?

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Shaped by three UNCONSCIOUS forces: Id Ego Superego

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Id

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guided by the Pleasure Principle Instinctual needs, drives, and impulses Sexual; fueled by libido (sexual energy)

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Ego

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guided by the Reality Principle Seeks gratification, but guides us to know when we can and cannot express our wishes Ego defense mechanisms protect us from anxiety

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Superego

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guided by the Morality Principle Conscience; unconsciously adopted from our parents

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Defense Mechanisms

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Repression, Denial, Projection, Rationalization, Displacement, Intellectualization, Regression

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Repression

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Person avoids anxiety by simply not allowing painful or dangerous thoughts to become conscious. Example: An executive's desire to run amok and attack his boss and colleagues at a board meeting is denied access to his awareness.

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Denial

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Person simply refuses to acknowledge the existence of an external source of anxiety. Example: You are not prepared for tomorrow's final exam, but you tell yourself that it's not actually an important exam and that there's no good reason not to go to a movie tonight.

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Projection

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Person attributes own unacceptable impulses, motives, or desires to other individuals. Example: The executive who repressed his destructive desires may project his anger onto his boss and claim that it is actually the boss who is hostile.

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Rationalization

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Person creates a socially acceptable reason for an action that actually reflects unacceptable motives. Example: A student explains away poor grades by citing the importance of the "total experience" of going to college and claiming that too much emphasis on grades would actually interfere with a well-rounded education.

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Displacement

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Person displaces hostility away from a dangerous object and onto a safer substitute. Example: After a perfect parking spot is taken by a person who cuts in front of your car, you release your pent-up anger by starting an argument with your roommate.

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Intellectualization

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Person represses emotional reactions in favor of overly logical response to a problem. Example: A woman who has been beaten and raped gives a detached, methodical description of the effects that such attacks may have on victims.

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Regression

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Person retreats from an upsetting conflict to an early developmental stage at which no one is expected to behave maturely or responsibly. Example: A boy who cannot cope with the anger he feels toward his rejecting mother regresses to infantile behavior, soiling his clothes and no longer taking care of his basic needs.

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Freud's developmental stages

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Freud proposed that at each stage of development new events and pressures require adjustment in the id, ego, and superego If successful → personal growth If unsuccessful → fixation at an early developmental stage, leading to psychological abnormality Because parents are the key figures in early life, they are often seen as the cause of improper development

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Sensory Exploration

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Oral 0 to 18 months

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Potty Training

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Anal 18 months to 3 years

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Gender Identity

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Phallic 3 to 5 years

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No big conflicts

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Latency 5 to 12 years

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Sexual Identity

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Genital 12 years to adulthood

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Ego theorists

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emphasize the role of the ego; consider it independent and powerful

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Self theorists

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Emphasize the unified personality

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Object-relations theorists

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Emphasize the human need for relationships, especially between children and caregivers

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Psychodynamic Therapies

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Range from Freudian psychoanalysis to modern therapies All seek to uncover past trauma and inner conflicts Therapist acts as a "subtle guide"

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Free association

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the therapist tells the patient to describe any thought, feeling, or image that comes to mind, even if it seems unimportant. the therapist expects that the patient's associations will eventually uncover unconscious events

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Resistance

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an unconscious refusal to participate fully in therapy when they suddenly cannot free associate or when they change the subject to avoid a painful discussion

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Transference

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when patients act and feel towards the therapist as they did or do toward an important person in their life

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dream interpretation

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repression and other defense mechanisms operate less completely during sleep, and dreams, if correctly interpreted, can reveal unconscious instincts, needs, and wishes

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Catharsis

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reliving of past repressed feelings

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Strengths of Psychodynamic Model

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First to recognize importance of psychological theories and treatment Saw abnormal functioning as rooted in the same processes as normal functioning First to apply theory and techniques systematically to treatment - monumental impact on the field

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Psychodynamic Model Weaknesses

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Unsupported ideas; difficult to research Non-observable Inaccessible to human subject (unconscious)

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The Behavioral Model

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Like psychodynamic theorists, behavioral theorists believe that our actions are determined largely by our experiences in life Concentrates wholly on behaviors and environmental factors Bases explanations and treatments on principles of learning

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Types of Conditioning

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Operant conditioning Modeling Classical conditioning All may produce normal or abnormal behavior

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Operant condition

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Humans and animals learn to behave in certain ways as a result of receiving rewards whenever they do so

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Modeling

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Individuals learn responses by observing and repeating behavior

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Classical Conditioning

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Learning by temporal association When two events repeatedly occur close together in time, they become fused in a person's mind; before long, the person responds in the same way to both events Father of classical conditioning: Ivan Pavlov (1849 - 1936) Classic study using dogs and meat powder Explains many familiar behaviors (both normal and abnormal)

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Behavioral Therapies

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Aim to identify the behaviors that are causing problems and replace them with more appropriate ones May use classical conditioning, operant conditioning, or modeling Therapist is "teacher" rather than healer

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Using classical conditioning treatments to change abnormalities

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Example: systematic desensitization for phobia Step-by-step procedure Learn relaxation skills Construct a fear hierarchy Confront feared situations

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Systematic desensitization

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a behavioral treatment in which clients with phobias learn to react calmly instead of with intense fear to the objects or situations they dread

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Strengths of the Behavioral Model

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Powerful force in the field Can be tested in the laboratory Significant research support for behavioral therapies

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Weaknesses of the Behavioral Model

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No evidence that symptoms are ordinarily acquired through conditioning Behavior therapy is limited Too simplistic New focus on self-efficacy, social cognition, and cognitive-behavioral theories

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self-efficacy

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the belief that one can master and perform needed behaviors whenever necessary

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cognitive-behavioral therapies

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therapy approaches that seek to help clients change both counterproductive behaviors and dysfunctional ways of thinking

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The Cognitive Model

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This model proposes that we can best understand abnormal functioning by looking at cognitive processes - the center of behaviors, thoughts, and emotions Argues that clinicians must ask questions about assumptions, attitudes, and thoughts of a client

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How Do Cognitive Theorists Explain Abnormal Functioning?

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Faulty assumptions and attitudes Illogical thinking processes Example: overgeneralization

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Cognitive Therapies

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People can overcome their problems by developing new ways of thinking Main model: Beck's Cognitive Therapy

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Beck's Cognitive Theory

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The goal of therapy is to help clients recognize and restructure their thinking Therapists also guide clients to challenge their dysfunctional thoughts, try out new interpretations, and apply new ways of thinking in their daily lives Widely used in treating depression

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Cognitive Model Strengths

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Very broad appeal Clinically useful and effective Focuses on a uniquely human process Theories lend themselves to research Therapies effective in treating several disorders

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Cognitive Model Weaknesses

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Precise role of cognition in abnormality has yet to be determined Therapies do not help everyone Some changes may not be possible to achieve In response, a new wave of therapies has emerged, including Acceptance and Commitment Therapy and mindfulness-based techniques

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The Humanistic-Existential Model

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Combination Model

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The Humanist View

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Emphasis on people as friendly, cooperative, and constructive; focus on drive to self-actualize through honest recognition of strengths and weaknesses

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The Existentialist view

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Emphasis on self-determination, choice, and individual responsibility; focus on authenticity

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Rogers' Humanistic Theory

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Believes in the basic human need for unconditional positive regard If received, leads to unconditional self-regard If not, leads to "conditions of worth" Incapable of self-actualization because of distortion - do not know what they really need, etc.

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Rogers' "client-centered" therapy

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Therapist creates a supportive climate Unconditional positive regard Accurate empathy Genuineness Little research support but positive impact on clinical practice

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Gestalt Theory and Therapy

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Humanistic approach Developed by Fritz Perls Goal is to guide clients toward self-recognition through challenge and frustration Techniques: Skillful frustration Role playing Rules, including "Here and Now" and "I" language Little research support

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Spiritual Views and Interventions

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For most of the twentieth century, clinical scientists viewed religion as a negative—or at best neutral—factor in mental health This historical alienation between the clinical field and religion seems to be ending Researchers have learned that spirituality can, in fact, be of psychological benefit to people

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Existential Theories and Therapy

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Belief that psychological dysfunction is caused by self-deception; people hide from life's responsibilities and fail to recognize that it is up to them to give meaning to their lives therapy that encourages clients to accept responsibility for their lives and to live with greater meaning and value In therapy, people are encouraged to accept personal responsibility for their problems Goals more important than technique Great emphasis placed on client-therapist relationship

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Humanistic-Existential Model Strengths

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Taps into domains missing from other theories Emphasizes the individual Optimistic Emphasizes health

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Humanistic-Existential Model Weaknesses

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Focuses on abstract issues Difficult to research Weakened by disapproval of scientific approach Changing somewhat

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The Sociocultural Models

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Argue that abnormal behavior is best understood in light of the social and cultural forces that influence an individual Address norms and roles in society Comprised of two major perspectives: Family-Social perspective Multicultural perspective

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How Do Family-Social Theorists Explain Abnormal Functioning?

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Proponents of this model argue that theorists should concentrate on forces that operate directly on an individual, including: Social labels and roles Diagnostic labels (example: Rosenhan study) Social connections and supports

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Family-Social Treatments

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This perspective has helped spur the growth of several treatment approaches, including: Group therapy Family therapy Couple therapy Community treatment Includes prevention work

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family systems theory

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a theory that views the family as a system of interacting parts whose interactions exhibit consistent patterns and unstated rules

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How Do Multicultural Theorists Explain Abnormal Functioning?

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Culture refers to the set of values, attitudes, beliefs, history, and behaviors shared by a group of people and communicated from one generation to the next The multicultural, or culturally diverse, perspective has emerged as a growing field of study Multicultural psychologists seek to understand how culture, race, ethnicity, gender, and similar factors affect behavior and thought, as well as how people of different cultures, races, and genders differ psychologically The model holds that an individual's behavior is best understood when examined in the light of that individual's unique cultural context They also have noticed that the prejudice and discrimination faced by many minority groups may contribute to certain forms of abnormal functioning

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Multicultural Treatments

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Studies have found that members of ethnic and racial minority groups tend to show less improvement in clinical treatment than members of majority groups Two features of treatment can increase a therapist's effectiveness with minority clients: Greater sensitivity to cultural issues Inclusion of cultural models in treatment, especially in therapies for children and adolescents

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Sociocultural Model Strengths

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Added greatly to the clinical understanding and treatment of abnormality Increased awareness of clinical and social roles Clinically successful when other treatments have failed

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Sociocultural Model Weaknesses

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Research is difficult to interpret Correlation does not equal causation Model unable to predict abnormality in specific individuals

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biopsychosocial theories

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explanations that attribute the cause of abnormality to an interaction of genetic, biological, developmental, emotional, behavioral, cognitive, social, and societal influences.

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Integration of the Models

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A growing number of clinicians favor explanations of abnormal behavior that consider more than one cause at a time These are sometimes called biopsychosocial theories Abnormality results from the interaction of genetic, biological, developmental, emotional, behavioral, cognitive, social, and societal influences Some biopsychosocial theorists favor a diathesis-stress approach Diathesis = predisposition (bio, psycho, or social) Integrative therapists are often called "eclectic" - taking the strengths from each model and using them in combination

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Diathesis

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predispositions (bio, psycho, or social)

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The discovery of psychotropic medications in the _____ helped to advance the fields of psychiatry and psychology.

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1950s

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What is an anxiolytic?

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an antianxiety drug

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This is the oldest and most famous of the modern psychological models.

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psychodynamic

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Which model calls the consumer a "patient" and the therapist an "interpreter"?

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psychodynamic

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Which model calls the consumer a "client" and the therapist a "collaborator"?

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existential

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