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memory defined

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The mental processes that enable you to retain and retrieve information over time.

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Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory

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A model for describing memory in which there are three distinguishable kinds of memory (sensory, short term, long term) through which info passes in a sequential way as it is processed.

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sensory memory

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is the shortest-term element of memory. It is the ability to retain impressions of sensory information after the original stimuli have ended.

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Short Term Memory

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the capacity for holding a small amount of information in mind in an active, readily available state for a short period of time.

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Long Term Memory

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A system for permanently storing, managing, and retrieving information for later use. Items of information stored as long-term memory may be available for a lifetime.

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flashbulb memory

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distinctly vivid, precise, concrete, long-lasting memories of a personal circumstance surrounding a persons discovery of shocking events.

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encoding

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processing of info into memory system

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Storage

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retention of encoded info over time

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Retrieval

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process of getting memory out of storage

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iconic memory

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momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli, photographic

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echoic memory

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momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli, words not payed attention to can be recalled 3-4 seconds later

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automatic processing

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unconscious encoding of incidental info, such as space & time

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effortful processing

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encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

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serial position effect

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Tendency to best recall first, last items on a list

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retroactive inhibition

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the disruptive effect of new learning on old info

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proactive inhibition

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the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new info

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Chunking

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organizing info into familiar manageable units, occurs automatically

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long term potentiation (LTP)

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increase in cells firing potential after brief rapid stimulation, believed to be neural basis for learning and memory

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implicit memory

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retention independent of conscious recollection

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explicit memory

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memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare

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role of hippocampus in memory

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associated mainly with memory, in particular long-term memory. The organ also plays an important role in spatial navigation.

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recall memory

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when one must recall information learned earlier, fill in test

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recognition memory

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when a person needs to only identify terms previously learned, multiple choice

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relearning

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assesses the amount of time save when learning material again

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priming

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The unconscious activation of certain associations, predisposing perception, memory and response

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context and memory

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• The more similar the retrieval situation is to the encoding situation, the better retrieval

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mood and memory

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Our mood states provide an example of memory's state dependence. Emotions that accompany good or bad events become retrieval cues. Thus, our memories are somewhat mood congruent. You tend to remember other bad times when you're in a bad mood

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Why do we forget?

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failure to encode information into long term memory

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Repression

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the basic defense mechanism that forces anxiety provoking thoughts, feelings, and memories to the unconscious mind

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definition of personality (book and professor's)

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Book:Individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling and acting

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unconscious mind

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sexual and aggressive impulses as well as traumatic events that are repressed constitute the content of the unconscious mind

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ID

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a biological structure people are born with that seeks pleasure and avoids pain (pleasure principle).

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ego

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the conscious "executive" structure of the mind that attempts to satisfy ID impulses while considering the reality implications.

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super ego

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the moral, ethical component of personality that assists the EGO in gratifying ID impulses in socially acceptable ways and is a product of socialization.

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conscious mind

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awareness of ourselves and environment

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pre-conscious mind

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Memories, feelings, thoughs and images that we are unaware of at the moment but can be recalled. (eg telephone number)

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oral stage

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0-18 months pleasure from the mouth, sucking, biting, chewing

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anal stage

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18-36 months, pleasure from bowel and bladder function

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phallic stage

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3-6 years, pleasure from the genitals,manage incestuous feelings

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Latency Stage

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Latency 6-puberty dormant sexual feelings

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Genital

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puberty on maturation of sexual interests

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Oedipal and Electra Conflict

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a desire for sexual involvement with the parent of the opposite sex and a concomitant sense of rivalry with the parent of the same sex; a crucial stage in the normal developmental process.

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pleasure principle

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The principle of seeking immediate gratification for instinctual drives without concern for the consequences

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Reality principal

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the attempt by the ego to find safe realistic ways of meeting the needs of the id

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defense mechanisms

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In psychoanalytic theory, the ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality.

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projective test

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a personality test, such as the Rorschach or TAT, that provides ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger projection of one's inner dynamics

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objective test

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easures an individual's characteristics independent of rater bias or the examiner's own beliefs,

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Maslow's theory

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Hierarchy of needs, needs must be satisfied in the following sequence, physiological needs, safety , love and belongingness, esteem, and self- actualization.

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self-actualization

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according to Maslow, one of the ultimate psychological needs that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one's potential

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Rodger's theory

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mphasizes the importance of the self-actualizing tendency in forming a self-concept.

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conditions of worth

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according to Rogers, expectations we place on ourselves for appropriate and inappropriate behavior

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Unconditional positive regard

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The acceptance and appreciation of an individual, faults and all. This was proposed by humanist Carl Rogers and is a critical component of client-centered therapy

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criticisms of humanistic theory

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vague and subjective as well as the individualism encouraged selfishness

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self-perception theory

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Approach to attitude formation that assumes that people infer their attitudes and emotional states from their behavior.

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individualistic and collectivist culture

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Individualistic Cultures: Concerns about message clarity and preserving one's own face are more important than maintaining the face of others, because tasks are more important than relationships, and individual autonomy must be preserved. Collectivist:

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cognitive social learning theories

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personality theories that new behavior is the product of the interaction of cognitives, learning and past experiences, and the immediate environment

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Rotter Learning theory

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Behavior is a function of (Expectancy for Reinforcement x Reinforcement Value) People do what they expect will produce reinforcement that they value

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Bandura Learning theory

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people learn from one another, via observation, imitation, and modeling. The theory has often been called a bridge between behaviorist and cognitive learning theories because it encompasses attention, memory, and motivation.

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Mischel Learning theory

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believes that personality per se does not exist, and that our traits are merely cognitive strategies or things that we do for us to obtain the kind of reward we want.

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Social Facilitation effect

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people tend to perform simple, well-learned tasks better when other people are present

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Eysenck & Eysenck - 2 factor model

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are introversion-extroversion and stability-instability. All other traits fall within this two-dimensional space produced by these factors.

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Five Factor Model

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Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism

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social cognition

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The process of analyzing and interpreting events, other people, oneself, and the world in general.

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self-concept

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The knowledge of oneself as a person both separate from other people and constant throughout changing situations.

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self esteem

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A measure of how much you value and respect yourself

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reference group

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Any group that individuals use as a standard for evaluating themselves and their own behavior.

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Social Perception

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understanding others in social world; is the initial information we process about other people in order to understand their mindsets and intentions.

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social comparison theory (Festinger)

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theory that we seek to evaluate our abilities and beliefs by comparing them with those of others

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Relative Deprivation Theory

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argues that people react to what they think they have relative to others

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Terror Management Theory

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The idea that people adopt cultural values and moral principles in order to cope with their fear of death

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Sociometer Theory

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self-esteem acts like a meter to inform us of the degree to which we are likely to be accepted or rejected by other

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Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

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an expectation that causes you to act in ways that make that expectation come true

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Attribution theory

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A theory that supposes that one attempts to understand the behavior of others by attributing feelings, beliefs, and intentions to them.

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Fundamental Attribution Error

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The tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition

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actor-observer effect

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The tendency to attribute the behavior of others to dispositional causes but to attribute one's own behavior to situational causes.

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attitude

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Feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events.

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elaboration likelihood model

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a dual process theory describing the change of attitudes form

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cognitive dissonance theory

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here is a tendency for individuals to seek consistency among their cognitions (i.e., beliefs, opinions). When there is an inconsistency between attitudes or behaviors (dissonance), something must change to eliminate the dissonance.

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Milgram obedience study

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Ordinary people are likely to follow orders given by an authority figure, even to the extent of killing an innocent human being. Obedience to authority is ingrained in us all from the way we are brought up.

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Zimbardo Prison Study

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investigate how readily people would conform to the roles of guard and prisoner in a role-playing exercise that simulated prison life.

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attribution theory

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A theory that supposes that one attempts to understand the behavior of others by attributing feelings, beliefs, and intentions to them.

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fundamental attribution error

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The tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition

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dispositional attribution

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assuming that another's behavior is due to personality factors, not situational ones

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situational attribution

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Assigning the cause of a behavior to environmental factors.

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foot in the door phenomenon

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the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request

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Prejudice

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A negative attitude toward an entire category of people, often an ethnic or racial minority.

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stereotype

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A generalized belief about a group of people

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Asch conformity studies

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About one third of people will agree with obvious mistruths to go along with the group

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social loafing

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The tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable.

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Prejudice and stereotypes

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Prejudice is a three part mixture of beliefs (Stereotypes), emotions, and predispositions

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social discrimination

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differential treatment of people in certain groups; the behavioral component of prejudice

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contact hypothesis

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The idea that stereotypes and prejudice toward a group will diminish as contact with the group increases.

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matching hypothesis

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The idea that males and females of approximately equal physical attractiveness are likely to select each other as partners.

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mere exposure effect

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the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them

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social facilitation and inhibition

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Facilitation occur when increase in performance when in the presence of others (easy tasks), inhibition occurs when decrease in performance when around others (difficult tasks).

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Social influence

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The ways people alter the attitudes or behaviors of others, either directly or indirectly.

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Social Norms

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expected standards of conduct, which influence behavior

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deindividualtion

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the loss of self- awareness and self- restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity

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Social Loafing

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The tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable.

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Obedience to authority

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17) Stanley Milgram was investigating _____ in his classic teacher-learner shock studya) the effects of punishment on learning

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aggression

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Any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy.

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environmental psychology

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the study of the relationship between behavior and the physical environment

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bystander effect

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The tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present.

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conflict

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A struggle between two opposing forces

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social dilema

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A conflict in which the most beneficial actions for an individual will, if chosen by most people have harmful effects on everyone

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zero-sum

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A social situation in which one person's gains are subtracted from another person's resources, so that the sum of the gains and losses is zero

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Group think

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The tendency for members of a cohesive group to reach decisions without weighing all the facts, especially those contradicting the majority opinion.

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