Chapter 1: Human Inquiry and Science
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(1) Those things we "know" as part of the culture we share around us; (2)When you accept the reality of something you have not personally experienced; (3) secondhand knowledge Example: Earthbound scientists accept the assertion that the dark side of the moon is cold. (They haven't personally been to the dark side of the moon to feel the cold for themselves). * Scientists accept the reality of things they don't personally experience--they accept an agreement reality--but have standards of doing so. (These standards include: Logic & empirical support). Scientific assertion
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What is Agreement Reality?
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Agreement reality= you don't experience it personally, but you still accept it as true Experiential reality= what you experience personally
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Agreement Reality vs. Experiential Reality
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(1)When the assertion is supported by logic and empiricism. How do we know what is real? (2)You can gain knowledge from agreement reality when that scientific assertion (something that you hold to be true even if you haven't experienced it personally) is supported by: 1. Logical support-must make sense 2. Empirical Support-mustn't contradict observation
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When/why do scientists accept Agreement Reality?
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the science of knowing; systems of knowledge
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Epistemology
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the science of finding out; procedures for scientific investigation; (a sub-field of Epistemology)
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Methodology
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Tradition-knowledge shared based on cultural understandings Authority-knowledge based on the status of the discoverer
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What are the sources of agreement reality (aka secondhand knowledge)?
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1. over-generalization 2. inaccurate observations 3. selective observations 4. illogical reasoning
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What are some errors in inquiry?
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(1) Use large and representative samples (2) Use of replication-repeating a research study to test/confirm/question the findings of an earlier stud
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How can you avoid over-generalization?
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By using measurement devices/methods.
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How can you avoid inaccurate observations?
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Avoid looking for "deviant" cases
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How can you avoid selective observations?
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1. Use systems of logic consciously and explicitly. 2. Avoid "gambler's fallacy" (the illogical belief that consistent run of good or bad luck foreshadows the opposite)
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How can you avoid illogical reasoning?
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Logic and observation
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What are the foundations of social science?
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a systematic explanation for the observations that relate to a particular aspect of life
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Theory
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has to do with what is, not what should be
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Social Theory
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Social research aims to find patterns of regularity in social life. * The charge of triviality-documenting the obvious is valuable * Regularities are still real and important even though there may be exceptions * People could interfere- the conscious will of social actors to upset social regularities does not pose a serious challenge to social science
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Social Regularities
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Aggregates, not individuals. Aggregates-the collective actions and situations of many individuals.
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When looking for social regularities what kind of group do social scientists study?
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the collective actions and situations of many individuals.
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Aggregated Patterns of Behavior
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The focus social science is to explain why aggregated patterns of behavior are regular even when individuals change over time.
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What is the focus of social science when it comes to aggregated patterns of behavior?
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sets of related attributes; logical groupings of attributes variable: occupation attribute: lawyer, doctor, nurse
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Variable
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characteristics of people or things
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Attributes
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causes/determines dependent variable; values aren't problematical in analysis
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Independent Variable
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cause by/determined by independent variable
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Dependent Variable
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Exploratory, descriptive, and explanatory purposes.
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What are the 3 purposes of social research?
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investigative; mapping out a topic that may warrant further research later EX: (like learning about a new street drug) -Suggestive rather than decisive conclusions -Methods vary greatly
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Exploratory research
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done for the purpose of describing the state of social affairs; EX: (what is the unemployment rate? what are the racial compositions of a particular city?) -Careful empirical description rather than speculation and impressions
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Descriptive research
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Providing reasons for phenomena in the form of causal relationships EX: (why do some cities have higher unemployment rates? -Provides more trustworthy explanations
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Explanatory research
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(1) several reasons to explain one specific thing; (2) you look at an event and try to explain all of the idiosyncratic (distinct) causes that led up to it
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Idiographic Explanation
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an approach to an explanation in which you: (1) one reason to explain a broad issue; (2) you look at one (or a few) causal factor that impact a class of conditions or events - Offers a short/partial explanation
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Nomothetic Explanation
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(1) moves from the general to specific; (2) general principles are developed from specific observations - a set of specific observations to the discovery of a pattern that represents some degree of order among all the given events
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Inductive Theory
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(1) moves from the specific to the general; (2) general principles form hypotheses -an expected pattern to an observation that proves/disproves expected pattern
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Deductive Theory
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gaining knowledge for knowledge's sake
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Pure Research
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putting research into practice
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Applied Research
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the ability to hold conflicting ideas in your head simultaneously
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Tolerance for ambiguity
