Double Blind
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Both people giving and getting test don't know what procedure they are getting.
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Double Blind
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accuracy in concluding that the outcome of an experiment is due to the independent variable
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Internal Validity
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When variables compete to explain the affects found in a study
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Confounding Variable
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Independent Variable Dependent Variable Pre-test Post-test Experimental Group Control Group Random Assignment
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7 Elements of Experimental Design
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explores processes that underlie human behavior
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Qualitative Research
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Specific data -> general theory
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Inductive
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General theory -> specific data
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deductive
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1. Depth Rather than breadth 2. Learn about "how and why" people behave etc. 3. Often Exploratory 4. Often inductive 5. Continual shaping and reshaping of the data 6. Data is in the form of words, images 7. May be a follow-up of previous research where a quantitative researcher has reached an impasse in explaining or understanding.
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Qualitative Research Characteristics
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demonstrates that the inquiry was conducted in such a manner to ensure that the participants were accurately identified and described.
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Credibility
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can the findings of the study be confirmed by someone else?
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Confirmability (objectivity)
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1. Persistent Observation 2. Prolonged Engagement - data gathering 3. Thick, Rich, In-depth Description 4. Triangulation of methods, sources, investigators 5. Negative Case Analysis 6. Audit Trail 7. Conceptual Saturation 8. Member Checks 9. Peer Debriefing 10. Explicit Documentation of data collection methods, analysis, and field decisions that altered any strategies or focus
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Trustworthiness of Qualitative Data
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theoretical memos including detailed descriptions of how you got from the data to the conclusions.
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Audit Trail
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collect data until no new categories are generated.
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Conceptual Saturation
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search for and explain phenomena that do not fit. Revise hypotheses until they account for all known cases.
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Negative Case Analysis
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recurring observation of participants
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Persistant Observation
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present analysis of the data to informants for their confirmation or revision
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Member Checks
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present analyses and conceptual abstractions of the data to other qualitative researchers (to explore inquirer bias and clarify meanings and the basis of interpretation)
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Peer Debriefing
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Used to identify content (messages, themes) in various types of materials. Identify the research question. Identify the unit of analysis.
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Content Analysis
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- Open coding - Axial coding - Selective coding
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Data analysis includes:
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The initial "pass" through the data. Locate initial themes and name (code) them. Creates many new themes.
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Open Coding
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Refining your categories
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Axial Coding
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Representing the whole - look selectively for cases that illustrate each theme. Identify best quotations. Identify how themes best fit together. (ex. Pick a favorite from your ten groups. he has a great quote that I am going to use ) *It's always non-probability because you have a broad question.
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Selective Coding
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Open coding - identify the major themes for each participant. Some participants may have more than one theme coded (double coding). Talk with several others in the class to identify if you have the same themes (triangulation of investigators) List the major themes you have come up with Axial coding - look at your major themes - are there any themes that could be collapsed into a broader category? Any sub-categories? Selective coding - what quote best represents each of your themes?
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The research question is: "What important themes do young adults identify from the April 2011 General Conference addresses?
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a) Empowerment - especially for less powerful groups (ie. women, racial minorities, people with disabilities, etc). b) Enlightenment - uncovering myths; exposing false ideologies. c) Emancipation - freeing people from false ideologies. Helping people change the world for themselves
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Purposes of Critical Research: To change the world through...
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X- Treatment O - Assessment
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One-shot case study
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O - Assessment X - Treatment O - Assessment
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One group pretest-posttest
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There are 2 groups. One group receives a treatment, and the other does not, but both are tested them same way. X O, and O
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Non-Equivilant Control Group
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R - Random Assignment O - Assessment X - Treatment O - Assessment
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Classical Experimental Design
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R - Random Assignment X - Treatment O - Assessment
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Post-Test Only Control Group
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going back and re-interviewing recurring observation in participants.
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Persistent Observation
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gathering data over time
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Prolonged engagement
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talk about the details
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Thick-Rich in depth description
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of data collection methods & analysis at each stage
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Explicit Documentation
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3 different types of sources
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Triangulation of Sources
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asking questions
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Triangulation of Method
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1) Informal conversational interviews 2) Guided approach *Best for children, with their cognitive limitations, linguistic limitations, and attention span 3) Standardized open-ended interview
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Interviewing Types
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most books, Time magazine (second summary)
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secondary sources
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Peer reviewed ACTUAL journal articles detailing research findings
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primary
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There isn't a relationship between infidelity and marital happiness
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Non-Directional
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If there is more infidelity, there will be less happiness. There is a relationship between infidelity and marital happiness.
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Directional
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reflects a difference between groups and the direction of the difference is specified (if-then)
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Directional Hypothesis
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seeing how many times an article is cited
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Social Citation Index
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seeing specifics of articles, secondary source.
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PyschInfo (EBSCO)
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Abstract Introduction Methods Results Discussion
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Elements of a Research Paper
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Summary
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Abstract
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Hypothesis Review of literature Conceptual definitions (i.e. this is what happiness means) Contribution
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Introduction
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Design Sample Measures & Operational definitions Procedures
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Methods
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data
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Results
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Interpretation of results, Implications & Limitations
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Discussion
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how stable or consistent the measure is
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Reliability
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it is measuring what you say it is
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Validity
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Consistency of results when the same test is given by different researchers. uses Cohen's Cappa
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Inter-rater (reliability)
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index of strength between 2 variables. Difference between test A and B.
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Correlation coefficient (reliability)
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Asks the same question 500 times. Kronbachs Alpha. How unified the items are in a test.
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Inter-item consistency (reliability)
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How stable a test is over time.
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Test-re-test (reliability)
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face to face, on the same level as fellow researchers
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Face Validity
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Breadth of items in the measure
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Content Validity
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how does the measure relate to already known standards
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Criterion Validity
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how well a test measures present performance
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Concurrent Validity
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how well it predicts future performance (correlation coefficient)
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Predictive Validity
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operational definition accurately assesses theoretical concepts or results of the test are related to an underlying psychological construct.
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Construct Validity
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are you different enough - *correlation about .2 or less
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Discriminative Validity
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Similar enough - *correlation about .8 or more
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Convergent Validity
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News or news paper, or a novel
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General source
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Purposive Snowball Quota Convenience
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Non -Probability Sampling
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choose participants based upon aims and purposes of the study
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Purposive
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participants nominate participants
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Snowball
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get a certain number *used for representing the important subgroups in a population.
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Quota
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All are convenience, but specifically a "convenience sample" makes no attempt to randomize population. You can tell it apart from the other non-probability samples because it lacks the criteria, snowballing, and subgroups of the other types.
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Convenience
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SRS (Simple Random Sample) Cluster Multi-stage Cluster Systematic Stratified
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Probability Sampling
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generalizable, but takes time & a large sample
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SRS (Simple Random Sample)
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list of clusters, random sample (ex: classroom) Sampling a cluster means they are all together in some form, like a club or quorum.
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Cluster
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several levels of clusters, then sub-sampled
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Multi-Stage Cluster
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every Kth element of list is selected
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Systematic
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population divided into strata and random selection made (ex: male & female strata, or gender strata)
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Stratified
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Nominal (categorical) Ordinal (scale from 1-10) Ratio *0/zero matters (ex:How many times did you brush your teeth today?...0 is a possible answer and an issue) Interval (ex: waist size or temperature) *No meaning to zero/zero is arbitrary
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Different types of measurements - NORI
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is an important part of the qualitative process - he/she is the primary source.
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Researcher
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1. Tuskegee Syphilis Study (1930-1972) 2. Belmont report (1974)
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Ethics
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Effects on black people vs. white people...When the real antidote for syphilis came out in 1950's, it was denied being given to the blacks...People went blind and many died.
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Tuskegee Syphilis Study (1930-1972)
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Beneficence - No harm! Justice - make sure no group is "picked on" or benefited in particular Respect for person *(IRB came later)
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Belmont Report (1974)
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the accuracy in concluding that the outcome of an experiment is due to the independent variable.
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Threats to internal validity
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the extent to which results of an experiment can be Generalized.
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External Validity
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+ Explores the CAUSAL relationship between variables + Random assignment for independent variable + Variables not being examined may be held constant (using control group)
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Experimental designs - Pros
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- Experimenter may give subtle cues to participants on how to respond...Expectancy is an issue, but solvable with precautions of standardized procedure & double blind procedure.
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Experimental designs - Cons
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No proof of causation, only correlation (makes sense with the name).
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limitations of Correlational data.
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Mean Median Mode
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central tendency
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"average" score...Interval & ratio data. Best for continuous data. If skewed, mode or median will be more accurate.
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Mean
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arranged scores lowest to highest & the median is in the middle. Best for rank order/ordinal data or unevenly distributed continuous data (possibly ratio or interval)
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Median
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the score that appears most often. Best for categorical data. *Can be 2 or more.
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Mode
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Doing research on something that couldn't be ethically tested.
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Post Hoc
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research that examines phenomena within the cultural and social context in which it takes place
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Qualitative Research
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At least 5 members A person employed by the institution A person NOT employed by the institution A scientist A non scientist One other
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IRB Process
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The use of sampling techniques (such as consumer surveys) whose findings may be expressed numerically, and are amenable to mathematical manipulation enabling the researcher to estimate future events or quantities.
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Quantitative Research
