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psychology

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The scientific study of mind and behavior

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psychological science

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The modern scientific study of psychology, originating in the late 19th century.

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psychiatry

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A branch of medicine concerned with diagnosing and treating mental health problems.

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academic psychology

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basic research and teaching for the purpose of advancing knowledge in psychology

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applied psychology

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use of psychological principles and methods to address the problems of the individual, society, or industry

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cognition

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Human mental processes concerned with information and knowledge. Cognition includes thinking, memory, language, intelligence, and perception of the world through the senses.

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behavior genetics

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the study of how genes and environments contribute to differences among people in attributes, abilities, personality, and behavior

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biopsychology (psychobiology)

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the study of biological origins of behavior, focusing on the endocrine, immune, and nervous systems

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comparative psychology

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the study of similarities and differences between human and nonhuman animals

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cognitive psychology

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the study of thinking, learning and memory, intelligence, language, and other aspects of cognition

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cross-cultural and ethnic psychology

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the study of cultural differences (and similarities) within and between societies

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developmental psychology (human development)

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the study of change and continuity across the life span, from birth to death

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educational psychology

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the study of how people learn in educational settings; evaluation o educational programs

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experimental psychology

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the study of nonhuman animal behavior in controlled laboratory settings

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neuroscience

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the study of how the structure and chemistry of the brain affect behavior; includes subspecialties such as cognitive neuroscience and behavioral neuroscience

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personality psychology

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the study of individual differences among people in characteristic behavior

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social psychology

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the study of how situations affect the behavior of individuals, and how the behavior of individuals affects situations; includes the study of the self, group behavior, interpersonal relationships, attitude and belief formation, prejudice, and so forth

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clinical and counseling psychology

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the study of causes and treatments of serious mental health problems and ordinary personal, work, and school-related problems

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forensic psychology

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the application of psychological methods and knowledge in the legal sphere (for example, in criminal investigations and litigation)

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health psychology

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The study of the interaction of psychology and health; includes the study of immune functions, emotion and health, and health problems such as eating disorders and addiction. One subspecialty is sports psychology.

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industrial and organizational psychology

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These psychologists help to train workers, increase productivity and job satisfaction, assist in career choice, and administer tests in organizational settings.

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school psychology

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These psychologists are trained to conduct testing in school settings, advise administrators, and offer counseling to students and teachers.

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dualism

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The view that the mind and matter (including the body) belong in separate categories and are constructed of different material.

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British empiricism

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a 17th-century philosophical movement which held that the mind had no innate content—personal experience was responsible for the development of all thoughts, beliefs, and knowledge

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empirical

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the idea that knowledge should be obtained through personal experience

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structuralism

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A defunct psychological school founded by Edward Titchener, a student of Wilhelm Wundt. The psychologists believed that experience could be broken down into separate sensory components or \"structures\" and used introspection as a tool to investigate the structures of experience.

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functionalism

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The psychological school championed by William James which held that the mind could only be understood by referring to the purposes for which it was shaped through evolution.

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American Psychological Association

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an association founded in 1892 by G. Stanley Hall and others to advance the interests of psychology as a profession and science

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Willhelm Wundt

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created the first laboratory of psychological science in Germany

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Edward Titchener

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founded structuralism

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William James

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created the frst comprehensive textbook of psychology; applied evolutionary theory to human psychology

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Mary Whiton Calkins

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first woman president of the American Psychological Association (APA)

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Sigmund Freud

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founded psychoanalysis; profoundly influenced estern culture and the treatment of mental health problems

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John B. Watson

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founded behaviorism, applied laws of learning to the study of human behavior

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B. F. Skinner

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founded radical behaviorism, applied laws of learning to the study of human behavior

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Carl Rogers

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a founder of humanistic psychology; created client-centered psychotherapy

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Abraham Maslow

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a founder of humanistic psychology, developed an important theory of motivation

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psychoanalysis

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a theory and psychotherapeutic technique founded by Sigmund Freud and based upon the notion that human beings are driven by unconscious conflicts and desires originating primarily in experiences of early childhood.

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behaviorism

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The early movement in psychology founded by John B. Watson who held that only behavior—not internal mental states—could be studied scientifically. Psychologists that study this believed that behavior was shaped primarily or entirely by experience.

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humanistic psychology

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The movement in psychology founded during the 1950s primarily by Carl Rodgers and Abraham Maslow as a reaction against psychoanalysis and behaviorism. Humanistic psychology held that human behavior was not determined by unconscious drives or by learning, but that people had free will to choose. The humanists emphasized the intrinsic worth and dignity of the human being.

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intuition

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Literally, \"knowledge from within.\" Obtaining knowledge or understanding without conscious effort or rational thought and often without conscious awareness. Intuition is immediate and unexpected. Although it may contain nonempirical aspects, it is an empirical way of knowing because its development depends upon a lifetime of personal experiences.

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science

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A unique, systematic, self-correcting empirical method of obtaining knowledge about the natural world. It incorporates empirical observation and logical inference and is characterized by specific goals and methods. It is skeptical in outlook.

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scientific method

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a classical sequence of five steps involved in the acquisition of scientific knowledge. In fact, science is often accomplished with variations on this sequence and as such, the scientific method should more accurately be termed scientific methods.

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skepticism

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a philosophical approach or point of view based upon the scientific method which proposes that compelling evidence of a claim should be presented before one comes to believe in the claim

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critical thinking

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a series of interrelated cognitive skills designed to help one see things as they actually are, free from bias and error

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hypothesis

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A specific, testable prediction about what will happen given certain circumstances. Hypotheses are often drawn from theories, which are sets of interconnected ideas and statements used to explain facts.

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theory

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a set of interconnected ideas and statements used to explain facts

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level of analysis

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the particular aspect or level of a problem to which a theory is addressed

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pseudoscience

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nonscience performed for nonscientific goals, but with the surface appearance of science

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replication

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When a research study is repeated by other researchers working independently. Replications may be exact, following the procedures of the original study to the letter, or they may be conceptual—repeating the essence o the study but using somewhat different procedures, variables, or operational definitions.

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research methods

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used to refer to general strategies that may be used for conducting research. There are three basic categories of research method: descriptive, experimental, and correlational.

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descriptive study

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A study that characterizes a sample in relation to variables of interest to the researcher. It answers questions of who, what, when, and how, but cannot determine if one variable influences another. The category \"descriptive research\" includes surveys, case studies, and naturalistic observations.

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case study

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a descriptive research method in which the researcher gathers detailed, qualitative information about a single individual

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qualitative research

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Any research study (generally descriptive research) which collects extremely detailed information that conveys the quality of the research participant's experience. Qualitative data are very rich but do not easily lend themselves to quantitative (statistical) analysis.

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quantitative research

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Any research study which collects data in a form that may be analyzed statistically. Typically, it is conducted using larger samples than is possible in qualitative research projects.

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survey

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a descriptive research method used to obtain self-report data about people's experiences, attitudes, or feelings

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sample

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relatively small group of individuals selected to represent a larger group—the population from which the sample is drawn

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population

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the larger group of interest to a researcher, from which he or she will draw a smaller sample for the purposes of conducting a research study

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probability sampling

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any sampling procedure in which the probability of an individual being selected for the sample is known in advance and selection is on a generally random basis (e.g., simple random sampling)

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biased sample

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a sample that is not truly representative of the population from which it was drawn

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wording effects

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potential biases caused by the way survey questions, or questionnaires used in other types of research, are worded

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naturalistic observation

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a descriptive research method used to systematically observe \"real life\" behavior in a naturalistic setting

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Correlational research

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a method of study in which the researcher measures two or more variables as they already exist to see if there is an association (correlation) between them

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variable

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any factor whose magnitude or category can vary

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correlation

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When a change in one variable can predict change in another variable because the variables are associated in some way. However, the association between the variables may not be causal in nature.

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positive correlation

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when an increase in one variable is associated (correlated) with an increase in another variable

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negative correlation

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when an increase in one variable is associated (correlated) with a decrease in another variable

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correlation coefficient

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a statistic which quantifies the strength and direction of correlation (association) between two variables. It ranges from −1.0 (a perfect negative correlation) to +1.0 (a perfect positive correlation). One of these near 0 indicates no association between the variables in question.

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directionality

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in correlational research, even if two variables are related causally, it may not be clear which variable caused the other to change

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third variable problem

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In a correlational study, when a variable the researcher had not considered is responsible for observed effects in both of the variables of interest. The third variable problem is also referred to as an illusory correlation.

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casual effect

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when a change in one variable causes a change in another

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true experiment

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A research study where the experimenter satisfies all criteria necessary for causality to be inferred in the research results. These criteria usually include random assignment to conditions, manipulation of variables, use of control conditions, and control over confounding variables.

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Independent variable (IV)

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The variable being manipulated in an experiment to determine possible effects on a dependent variable (DV). The independent variable is \"free\" to take on any values the investigator decides to give it. These values are known as levels o the independent variable.

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levels of the independent variable

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the values assigned by the experimenter to the independent variable

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dependent variable (DV)

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the variable being measured in an experiment to determine if the manipulation of the independent variable has had any effect

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manipulation (of the independent variable)

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the technical term used to describe the process of making a purposeful change in the independent variable (IV) to measure any resultant change in the dependent variable (DV)

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control

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In an experiment, making certain that nothing else changes along with changes in the independent variable. More generally, the term control may encompass any technique used to avoid the inuence o conounding variables.

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conditions (of an experiment)

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Groups to which participants may be assigned in an experiment. In an experiment with only one independent variable, each level of the independent variable is also known as a ________ of the experiment.

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Random assignment to conditions

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when each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any of the conditions of the experiment (i.e., any of the levels of the independent variable).

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control group

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those participants in an experiment who do not receive the level of the independent variable that is of primary interest to the researchers, but are used instead for comparison purposes

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experimental group

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those participants in an experiment who receive the level of the independent variable whose effects on a dependent variable are of primary interest to the researchers

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confounding variable

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In an experiment, any variable that exerts a measurable effect on the dependent variable without the knowledge of the experimenter. Technically, this means that a _______________ is one whose values change systematically along with changes in the values of the independent variable.

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demand characteristic

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the tendency for some research participants to intuit the hypotheses or purpose of the research study in which they participate, and to adjust their behavior in response to the demands\" of the situation.

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good subject tendency

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the general desire of research participants to please the experimenter or give the experimenter what he or she \"wants\"

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blind

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in an experiment, when the research participants are unaware of which level of the independent variable they have received and/or are unaware of the nature of the researcher's hypothesis

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double-blind

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in an experiment, when both those running the experiment and the research participants are unaware of which level of the independent variable each participant is receiving and/or are unaware of the nature of the researchers' hypothesis

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operational definition

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precise definition of a variable in terms that can be utilized for a research study

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external validity

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the degree to which research results may generalize to the world outside the laboratory

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descriptive statistics

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basic statistics which provide descriptions of a set of data (e.g., percentage, mean, median, mode)

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mean

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descriptive statistic measuring the numerical average in a set of data

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median

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descriptive statistic which reports the score above and below which 50% of the sample has scored—that is, the \"middle\" score

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mode

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descriptive statistic representing the most frequently occurring score in a set of data

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inferential statistics

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statistics which help determine the probability that research results reflect actual relationships among variables, or which quantify the magnitude of this relationship

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statistical signifcance

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an inferential statistical procedure that allows one to determine the probability that one's research results reflect actual relationships among variables and are not due to chance factors

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effect size

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an inferential statistic that estimates the magnitude of the relationship between variables

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statistical literacy

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a term used by Gerd Gigerenzer and his colleagues to describe a basic arithmetic understanding of the nature of statistical claims, particularly those used in health sciences

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ethics

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a set of orderly rules for correct behavior, particularly within some specifc discipline or workplace

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Institutional Review Board (IRB)

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an institutional ethics body that must approve and monitor research studies involving human and animal participants

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informed consent

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When those participating in a research study have a thorough understanding of the study's potential risks and benefits. It is a cornerstone of the ethical conduct of research involving human beings.

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debriefing

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When the purpose of a study, its procedures, and its potential value are explained to a participant after his or her participation is complete. It is particularly important in studies which have involved some measure of deception.

Psychology – Chapter 1 – Psychology as Science

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