Glossary 1 – Learning Disabilities – Flashcards
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Learning Disability
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"A neurological condition that interferes with a person's ability to store, process, produce information" Disorder in 1 or more basic psychological processes (ie. memory, thinking...) Difficulty in learning part --Not explained by or primarily due to other causes Include: Neurological factors -dysfunctions in the brain, Central Nervous System etc--Cognitive processing- Uneven development of various components of mental functioning (some areas delayed in development)--Difficulty in academic/learning tasks - Speech, writing, motor skills--Severe discrepancy between achievement and intellectual ability/Student does not achieve at proper age/ability levels--Exclusion of other causes--Affects:Ability to read, write, compute math, spell,Attention,•Memory,Co-ordination,Social skills
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Public Law 94-142
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Education for all Handicapped Children Act (1975)-First special education law that provided services for children with disabilities--Identified each category of exceptional children in special education, and the actual prevalence rates for each category of disability.
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Age Equivalent Scores (AE) & Grade Equivalent Scores (GE)
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Scores that indicate the level of growth or development a child has reached--Ordinal scores that compare scores to others but don't tell us how much worse/better someone is → can't determine a person's intellectual discrepancy--intellectual degree of 7 = level of skill/intellect to that of a 7 year old--scored against what is typical of what is children at different ages/grades (this info is obtained through standardized norm-referenced tests)
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Percentile Ranks (PR)
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as Percentage of normative or standardized group that is below an individual's percentile rank score.-- Is an ordinal score - Can't be used to determine how severe a person's intellectual discrepancy is--Example: PR of 25 → person's score exceeded 25% of the score of those in a normative sample
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Standard Scores
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The number of standard units above or below the mean a person's score is--More precise measurement of discrepancy---Uses the standard deviation of the distribution of scores around the mean to show how far a person's score differs from the mean--Most use a mean of 100 and SD of 15--Can tell how much better or worse a person did--used to determine severe discrepancy between aptitude and achievement
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Severe Discrepancy between Aptitude and Achievement
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Gap between what a person is potentially capable of learning and what the person has in fact learned/achieved--one characteristic of a learning disability-- use IQ tests to measure (1) the person's potential for learning, (2) the person's current achievement level, (3) the degree of discrepancy between the two (potential and achievement)--both aptitude and achievement tests should be normed on the same representative sample of children
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Reliability of Difference Scores
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Found by subtracting one score from another--Reliability of difference scores is less than the reliability of the individual scores → should be considered when determining how severe a discrepancy is
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IDEA 2004& 2006
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- Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEA-2004--provides definition of a learning disability:a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in using or understanding language spoken or written.-- Difficulty learning → to listen, write, read, speak, spell, do math.--not primarily due to other causes-- * States that the diagnosis/identification of a learning disability does not require a demonstration of severe discrepancy between aptitude and achievement (can be included, but is not necessary)
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Response to Intervention (RTI)
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Procedure used to identify a learning disability-- IDEA-2004 permits teachers to use RTI with children as early as grade 1 to provide them with best evidence, age appropriate instruction to improve the child's learning. If child doesn't respond to or benefit from intervention, they may be classified with a learning disability.-- lets school use a comprehensive evaluation to determine if child is eligible for supportive services- - can be argued that RTI just postpones carrying out a comprehensive assessment
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LDAO definition of LD - Learning Disabilities Association of Ontario
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Definition of a LD not restricted by use of discrepancy tests--Focuses on: Impairments in psychological processes involved in learning in combination with otherwise average thinking skills--- Unexpected low academic achievement--Average or above average achievement that is only attained with unrealistically high effort from the child, or intensive educational support--Recognizes weaknesses and impairments also affect work and life skills (not just school success)
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Test Assumptions
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Assumes tester is adequately trained → gets client to try their best, and accurately records responses and follows proper procedures--Sample of behaviour in test is adequate in amount and representative of the domain being sampled-- Assumed client has been exposed to a similar culture--Error will be present in any measure obtained (SE)--only present behaviour can be observed
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Test Retest Consistency Reliability
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How consistent a test is in measuring what it's supposed to measure.Refers to stability in scores over time.Test is given to same large group on more than one occasion (group measured at one time, and same group measured at a later time).Shows relative standing of individuals → if they receive similar scores both times then test is consistent--Expressed as a reliability coefficient
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Validity
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Extent to which a test actually measures what it's said to/supposed to measure/Hard to determine validity of intelligence tests--Measured by how well a test can predict other forms/types of behaviour
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Norms
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Standards of comparison--Uses standardized group to create test norms (scores of people in the standardized group)--Compare scores of person taking test with test norms--Hard to compare scores that have been normed on different sample groups (many standardized tests are not normed on same sample groups)
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Reliability of Differences
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In order for discrepancy scores to be meaningful, APTITUDE must be able to predict ACHIEVEMENT.Reliability of the difference between these scores is less than the reliability of individual test scores.
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Executive Functioning
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Planning,Organizing,Monitoring what one is doing,Attending to task at hand--How child manages demands on working memory
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Time Sampling
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Running behaviour commentaries → recording everything that happens in 5-10 minute segments of a classroom lesson-- Provides info about executive functions
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Think Aloud
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Engaging child to think aloud while performing in tasks--asked to think about how to do a problem, explain everything you're thinking out loud-- provides info on the integrity of executive functions
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Standardization Sample
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Sample of peers--Samples are balanced (gender, ethnicity, geographic region etc)--A large sample of test takers who represent the population for which the test is intended
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WISC-IV
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Composite Scores/Individual Subtests - Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children--standardized norm-referenced test--contains 10-15 subtests--so many subtests because Wechsler thought there were many ways a person could be intelligent, didn't want to focus on any one aspect of intelligence as being disproportionately important compared to others--- IQ scores are computed by the sum of 4 groups--1.Verbal Comprehension(Similarities,Vocabulary, Comprehension) 2.Perceptual Reasoning(Block Design - interpreting abstract designs (completed using meaningless pieces) Picture Concepts,Matrix Reasoning- interpreting abstract designs (completed using meaningless pieces))3.Working Memory(Digit Span → repeat series of numbers in forward and backwards order, Letter-Number Sequencing → repeats sets of random mixed up numbers and letters and put them in their natural order), 4.Processing Speed(Coding → quickly, accurately record geometric symbols for numbers from a template,Symbol Search → rapidly distinguishing differences and similarities in sets of shapes)
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Perceptual Organizational Skills (WISC-III)
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Picture arrangement, object assembly, mazes → they're NOT included in WISC-IV--People still use them because they monitor behaviours associated with changes in tactics being used by child.
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Scale Scores
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Score between 1-19 that is assigned based on how well child does compared to peers of the same age group---points earned for every correct response, then compared against standardized test norms--fall between 7 - 13 on average
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IQ Scores
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Mean of 100,SD of 15,Average IQ is 90-109
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IQ Classification
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68% of individuals score 85-115--Uses mean and SD to define the average range--Average IQ is 90-109
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Object Assembly
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- put together puzzle pieces that don't interlock, but represent a common object when put together properly
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Picture Arrangement
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- pictures of familiar objects, requires child to interpret what is happening in a picture and put them in an order that makes sense
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Mazes
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Visual Search Tasks - an active scan of the visual environment for a particular object or feature (the target) among other objects or features (the distractors)
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Global versus Local Features
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- example can correctly identify a general feature, but may ignore specific details (chooses right shape, wrong size)
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Bender Gestalt Test
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- client to copy a series of 9 abstract design, one at a time, onto a blank piece of paper. - Cannot rotate design cards, not told how to set up paper to have room for all designs.- scored on a negative basis → points deducted for errors (rotating paper, parts omitted, perseverance).
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Figure Copying
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- NOT simple- Not tracing → requires you notice critical features in display, incorporate that into a mental representation of the figure you're copying, and you actually draw out this mental representation
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Self Regulatory Speech
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- able to regulate himself with his speech, express what you're doing out loud, count to yourself etc. notice and talk more about features
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Model for Visual Object Recognition
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designed by Humphreys and Riddoch (perceptual problems of patients who have had a stroke)- requires perception skills- affected by brain damage
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Object Decision Tests
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identify whether a picture is real or imaginary → uses stored structural descriptions. - bottom up: local to global - top down
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Gross Motor Skills
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involve ability to move various parts of the body--required to develop smooth, effective body movements and to increase spatial orientation and body consciousness- abilities usually acquired during infancy and early childhood as part of a child's motor development. include:- walking activities- throwing and catching activities
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Control Processes
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- Used to control the flow of information from one system to another- under the control of the individual and are influenced by instructions given and past experiences- include rehearsal, searching memory, setting criteria for making decisions
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Sensory Register
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- information is first received through senses → first memory system- stimuli that is attended to is put into sensory register- information is quickly lost unless put into short term memory- perception gives meaning to this stimuli- attention is also required
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Short Term Memory (STM)
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- for temporary information storage - information remains here briefly, but can be maintained in STM longer through rehearsal- longer maintenance/retainment time than sensory register- not consciously aware of this information
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Long Term Memory (LTM)
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- provides unlimited space for information- made for permanent memory storage- information must be transferred from STM and Working memory- uses storage and retrieval: how to recall information that is stored in LTM--2 different types of LTM:1.Episodic - visual and other sensory events in a person's life (personal memories)--2.Semantic - general knowledge or facts (don't necessarily have knowledge of when/how we learned this information) retrieval is sometimes triggered by strange events. example: See a person from the past and can remember their phone number but not their name.
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Rehearsal Buffer
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- has a limited capacity, can only handle a few items at a time- new information will replace old information unless it is stored in LTM
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Working Memory
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- coordination of on-going information processing (ability to multi-task)- the ability to hold and manipulate information in the mind for brief or extended periods of time- has access to control processes available in LTM- incorporates sensory register, rehearsal buffer, STM, and LTM- active system used in complex cognitive tasks- information in working memory captures our focus and attention- requires processes such as; accretion, restructuring, and schema tuning.- linking new information with old information-accessing control processes and contributing to their development
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Assessment of Working Memory
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- critical role in the development of skills (reading, writing, learning new skills)- recalling letters and numbers backwards, putting mixed up numbers and letters into their natural order- arithmetic testing- measure verbal and visuo-spatial working memory
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Cogmed
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- international training program designed to improve weak working memory skills- effectiveness of Cogmed has not completely been determined
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Accretion
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the addition of new knowledge to an existing data structure of schema in long-term memory- example: fact learning
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Restructuring
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forming new schemas in long-term memory completely reorganizing or reconceptualizing knowledge about a topic or developing a new skill
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Schema Tuning
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making existing schemas more efficient, [so that] highly tuned procedures may become automatic
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Proactive Interference
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- items tend to linger in working memory and affect a person's performance in future trials- items from a previous trial intrude in subsequent/future trials- some children are particularly prone to this (fall behind because they are still working on problems while their peers have moved on to new material)
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Amnesia
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partial or total loss of memory
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Retrograde Amnesia
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- loss of memory for events before the accident/trauma causing amnesia- can't remember past events
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Anterograde Amnesia
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- inability to retain new information after the trauma- loss of ability to create new memories (can't store memories into LTM)- can keep things in STM only if rehearsing them (info is lost once rehearsing stops)- can learn and get better at many motor tasks (just don't have memory or awareness of learning new things)
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Famous Persons Test
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- provide the name of famous people in pictures- given faces of people who are famous both before and after the onset of their amnesia--retrograde → can't recognize people from before their amnesia---anterograde → can't recognize people from after their amnesia- sometimes can remember when provided with powerful retrieval cues
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DSM-IV-TR Diagnostic Criteria
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distinguish between child who are inattentive, hyperactive/impulsive, or both1. Meet criteria for either Inattention or Hyperactivity/impulsive a.meets 6 or more symptoms for inattention b.meets 6 or more symptoms for hyperactivity (includes symptoms for impulsivity) 2. present before age 7 3. present in two or more settings 4. clear evidence of clinically significant impairment in social, academic and occupational functioning 5. symptoms are always present → symptoms do not occur exclusively in the course of other impairments (e.g mood disorder, anxiety disorder)-------a diagnosis also needs detailed history of development, and data from teachers and parents documenting prevalence and severity of symptoms
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Barkley's Attention Profile and Barkley's Home and School Situation Questionnaire
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questionnaires developed to assist in diagnosing ADHD---Barkley recommends that systematic behavioural observation must be made while child works on tasks in classroom or in other situations---Barkley also recommends that children's parents complete detailed report of child's developmental history--only those who deviate significantly from the norm should be diagnosed
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Conners' CPRS
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Conners' CTRS (Conner's Parent Scale, Conners Teacher Rating Scale),separate norms for boys and girls, age 3-13 ---helps with collection of detailed info from parents and teacher---critical for making a diagnosis---measure a variety of behaviours (social/emotional/inattentive/ hyperactive-impulsive/oppositional/shyness/academic strengths
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ACID Pattern on WISC-IV
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---People with ADHD show an "ACID" pattern...Low Arithmetic - Coding - Information - Digit scan (ACID) pattern profiles on the WISC---some ADHD children show this pattern, but many that score low on ACID would not be classified ADHD-----WISC can still be useful for determining cognitive strengths and weaknesses of a ADHD child
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TEA-Ch the Test of Everyday Attention for Children
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tests in the TEA-Ch very much like games children would play at home---used to assess the variety of cognitive functions involved in attention:selective attention,control and switch attention → executive functions,sustained attention
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BRIEF Behaviour Rating Inventory of Executive Functioning
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•behaviour questionnaire for parents and teachers•assesses executive function behaviour at home and school•assesses ability to manage everyday demands on developing executive functions, including attention
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Information Processing View of ADHD
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•system for processing info-system is controlled by General Purpose Limited Capacity Central Processor (the executor) → has sets of mechanisms for allocating processing resources within the system•when resources allocated adequately - one is said to be paying attention:if all resources allocated to one task-individual may become too focused, catatonic or autistic,if allocated too thinly individual distractible and impulsive (too unfocused)
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Attentional Resource Allocation
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•some individuals may have a flaw in the mechanisms that involve resource allocation •OR a flaw in the information processing systems that affects how mechanisms operate
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Stimulus Seeking
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•executor needs optimal amount of energy to operate effectively•when energy falls below critical level individual engages in stimulus seeking activity•not enough resources left to focus on any given task
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Reticular Activating System (RAS)
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•controls arousal•runs beneath cerebral cortex → from brain stem into the midbrain•receives info from the body's sensory nerve fibres → spreads electrical activity over rest of central nervous system arousing the brain•there is an optimal amount of activity with RAS for effective performance of any task•some kids with ADHD may be in a constant state of under-arousal → always seeking arousal
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Double Blind Trial
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•helps with determining an effective dose for ADHD medication•pharmacist sets up a trial - only one that knows if pill is the drug or the placebo•symptoms/behaviour are monitored and rated by parents and teachers using rating scales•→ determines dose to use for a longer trial•doses can vary and be very specific/individualized from person to person
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Multitasking
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•doing two or more things at once•systems and schemas being cleverly orchestrated•central capacity seems almost limitless•automatic processes may be occurring•processing info may only be limited to the extent by which such schemas compete with the same response or stimulus of similar coding mechanisms
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Errors in Reading
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•sub skills must be orchestrated effectively to recognize words while reading•need to notice the internal details of words and use context to determine a word• if there is difficulty with mastering one or more sub skills (such as word sight recognition-noticing word details and understanding context of words for example) - there may be a lot of 'guessing'• if all sub skills are weak one can be favoured over another at random
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Cognitive Behaviour Modification
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•attempt to teach children how to orchestrate subskills better•teach children's executive system how to better allocate cognitive resources•teaches children self-instructional skills•teacher uses modelling, self-verbalization and self-reinforcement techniques•includes self-regulation components: initial questions, self guidance, verbal cueing and self reinforcement(◦what am I supposed to do◦what is my plan◦am I using my plan◦how did I do)•improvements/gains are often task or situation specific•need to train where, when, why, how to use techniques in situations•teaching individuals to teach themselve to develop executive control and to regulate self behaviour•harder for ADHD individuals--process is long and time consuming- they often do not persevere through difficulties
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Behaviour Management
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•employs old fashioned type behaviour modification techniques - such as using incentives, rewards to increase on task behaviour•improvement may be temporary and generalization to other tasks unlikely•may provide an environment where some ADHD children to achieve some success•effective to combine with CBM and drugs rather than just using medication alone to help with ADHD as medication alone can not make up for absent skills
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Phonology
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- study of speech sounds of a language- tests assess how well a child can:- Produce the sounds of their language- Discriminate basic sounds and phonemes of a language,Phoneme: smallest unit of sound ex. John's test (are two words spoken by the examiner different or the same?)
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Syntax
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- grammar system of a language - words are strung together to form a sentence- tests measure receptive and expressive knowledge of the grammar of a spoken language- metacognitive aspects of syntax develop late
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Semantics
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- vocabulary system or word meanings in a language- tests assess:- the meaning aspects of language- extent of child's receptive and expressive vocabulary- child may have difficulty relating a string of words to a meaningful association- maybe understand a concept but not have the appropriate words/vocab to express it
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Pragmatics
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- The social use of language → how the speaker uses language in their own environment- can result in communication disorders: - Difficulty interpreting intentions - Difficulty communicating with others - Difficulty with appropriate tone of voice, facial expression, gestures- includes factors like relationship between speaker and listener,speaker's assessment of the degree of knowledge of the listener- differences in intonation → pitch (melody), stress (accent), juncture (pauses)
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Word Finding
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- Ease of finding words to name common objects- OR ability to express one's intentions when replying to the speech of others
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Story Grammar
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- Rules commonly used in telling stories or relating events to others- deficits become obvious in how competent they are in their written compositions- Providing instruction with story grammar improves writing composition and reading comprehension- involves: setting, initiating event, internal response, internal plan, attempt, direct consequence, reaction
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Phonological Awareness
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- Ability to recognize that the words we hear are composed of individual sounds within the word. (words we hear are composed of individual phonemes)- A person's sensitivity to the sound structure of the language they speak- Skills formed during preschool years--Includes:- Identifying individual speech sounds- Deleting sounds in words to make other words- Blending sounds and phonemes- Repeating words in reverse-order
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Parcentesis Tympani
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- Tubes inserted into both ears to remove fluid build-up- fluid build up causes Upper respiratory infections- interferes with hearing
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Phonological Input Lexicon
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- Responsible for recognizing familiar spoken words- "lexicon decision"- Lexicon: the vocabulary of a person, language, or branch of knowledge
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Phonological Output Lexicon
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- makes spoken form of words or phonetic patterns available for the articulatory mechanisms in speech output- Is a lexicon where the spoken form of a word is activated for production. - contains only words → cannot be used to utter a non-word.- Used in word finding
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Lexical Decision Test
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- Assesses the integrity of phonological input- Subject is presented with strings of sounds (words and non words) distinguishes if presented words are words or non-words (responds yes or no to whether or not what was heard is a word or non-word)
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Audiogram
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- Used to assess a person's overall hearing, results are displayed on an audiogram- A graph that shows the audible threshold for standardized frequencies as measured by an audiometer
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Auditory Discrimination
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- To test, person is asked to:- Discriminate what part of the room a sound is coming from (near or far)- Disciminate if sound is loud or soft- Find object in room by locating the sounds
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Word Finding
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- provide words in response to certain prompts (naming nouns in response to pictures, completing sentences, providing category names for pictures ex. pictures of fruits)- can be hard with a limited vocabulary
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Double Deficit in Phonology
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Pattern of scores that shows:- Confusions in discriminations - Confusions with vowel sounds- Difficulty focusing on phonemic patterns/units- Below average naming speed
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Phonological Awareness and Naming Speed
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- ability to deliberately attend to and manipulate phonological information
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Cognitive Processing System for Reading
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- thinking procedures used in learning and performing academic tasks- assumes knowledge is processed using a multicomponent knowledge-based system
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Abstract Letter Identification (ALI)
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- ability to recognize a letter despite the script/font it is shown in- required for perceiving the position of letters within words- necessary for grouping words together
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Orthographic Input Lexicon (OIL)
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- output from abstract letter identification (ALI) is collected here- identifies strings of letters that form familiar words- is a whole world processor for familiar words- visual errors are caused when unfamiliar words activate units of the OIL of familiar words example. confusing clam and calm
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Letter to Sound Rules
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- responsible for assigning sound values to individual letters or groups of letters, and blending them together to form a word- can be called phonological coding → learned when learning phonics
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Whole Words Visual Errors (in reading)
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- visual errors occur when unfamiliar words activate units in the orthographic input lexicon of familiar words. For example, the word you see is "calm', but the word you read is "clam" instead.
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Phonological Recoding
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- assigning sound values to individual letters or groups of letters, and blending them together to form a word
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Phonological Output Lexicon
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-Connections from the OIL and the letter-to-sound rules system components to the phonological output lexicon and ultimately the mechanisms for overt speech bypass the semantic system altogether- thus, when reading aloud, its possible to read words that you do not know the meaning of and even non-words that have no meaning
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Pure Word Deafness
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-Injury to the component for analyzing auditory or basic acoustic features may lead to pure word deafness which is having problems hearing or repeating speech
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Word Meaning Deafness
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-when the phonological input lexicon is improvised causing you to not understand or recognize spoken words even though you can repeat them
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Word Finding Problems
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-having trouble finding words to express your thoughts; when the phonological output lexicon is affected you may have trouble retrieving low frequency words as opposed to high frequency words or generating approximations to words called neologisms
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Speech Defects
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-Trouble with speech mechanisms having trouble to pronounce R's or stuttering
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Neglect Dyslexia
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-Impairment at the abstract letter identification which identifies codes, letter identification, or groups of letters that belong together-Impairment in processing letter positioning and failure at processing letters at the end of the word
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Attentional Dyslexia
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-Making migration errors where letters from one word get incorporated into another word (part of the abstract letter identification)
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Alexia without Agraphia
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-where word reading is abolished altogether, but the capacity to write words is still intact (e.g. someone writing a letter to a friend would have no problem as long as they don't read what they are writing) (part of the abstract letter identification)
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Surface Dyslexia
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-Impairment has been done to the orthographic input lexicon; when there is a drastic reduction in one's sight vocabulary; the person is then left with the letter to sound system which operates much slower than the orthographic input lexicon
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Phonological Dyslexia
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-Impairment to the letter-to-sound system; the ability to read unfamiliar words or read non-words are done with many errors causing them to use the orthographic input lexicon to read. There may be errors in applying phonic rules or blending sounds to make words
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Word Reading Tests
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-can be assessed using both standardized achievement tests (Wechsler Individual Test of Achievement or WIAT-III) or informal tests of reading skills-Both types of tests assess word reading by having a client read aloud lists of letters and words, as well as with word attack skills in which a client is asked to read pronounceable non-words (e.g. bern, preb, thid, crud)
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Informal Reading Tests
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-Often use more items assessing word reading than standardized tests-The client is asked to read lists of graded words; Each word is printed one at a time on cards; accuracy, errors and speed of responding are recorded
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Sight Vocabulary
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-Words read correctly within one second or the time it takes to say 'one thousand and one'-Such responses reflect activity in the fast-acting OIL; responses that take longer than one second reflect some decoding strategy like phonological recording in the letter-to-sound rules system component-It is also possible that in the absence of overt decoding, the process of whole word recognition is just slow
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Cross Case Non-word Matching
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-This test was designed by Professor Max Coltheart to assess the abstract letter identification independently of anything else; the client is supposed to judge if the two letters are the same even when they are visually very different-only letters that are visually dissimilar are used-Each test consists of 32 pairs of two non-words, one in upper case and one in lower case. Half of the pairs (16) are comprised of the same letters, while the rest (16) are different-Non-word pairs are used to eliminate any contribution from the OIL while still trying to assess the skills in a context similar to reading (OIL cannot read non-words)-To remove any contribution from letter-to-sound rules we could present pairs of strings of letters that are no pronounceable
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Lexical Decision Test
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- this test was designed to assess the integrity of the orthographic input lexicon independently of any contribution from the letter-to-sound rules system of knowledge of phonics. The client is asked to judge whether a printed string is an english word or not. they are not required to read the string. Each item consists of a pair of strings of letters, one which makes a rel word and the other which may look similar but is not a real word (e.g. snow and snoe, room and rume). each pair is printed individually on cards. the task for the client is to point to the string that is a word. even if the client tries to read the words, it will not help b/c this would lead to the same sound. the lcient has to base their judgment on visual info alone, which is what the OIL uses.
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Nelson Denny Test
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- a reading test for high school and college level students. this is a timed silent reading test in which students are required to read short passages and answer MC questions about the passages.
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Naming Speed
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-This is the task of naming a series of familiar items as quickly as possible. In children, naming speed provides a strong predictor of their later reading ability. When naming speed reflects slowness at the level of initial visual processing, processing of both the orthographic input lexicon and letter-to-sound rules system may be impaired. Deficits in naming speed are also associated with deficits in rapid sight vocabulary and may reflect deficits in phonological awareness.
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Sound Blending
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Sound Blending is the ability to smoothly and rapidly combine phonological segments into words. To read proficiently, the student needs to learn to blend phonemic elements into words without pauses between the sounds. Sound blending is vital to developing correct phonological awareness, the foundation for proficient reading. Children with reading deficits have a difficult time with blending sounds together and may not understand what it means to say individual sounds rapidly
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Double Deficit Hypothesis
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The ability to read is believed to depend on both naming speed and phonological awareness. This DD hypothesis states that phonological deficits and naming-speed deficits are two separate causes of reading problems, such that when they are combined, they produce more severe reading disabilities. In those with reading deficits, naming speed is primarily associated with deficits in rapid sight vocabulary. It is however possible that it may lead to slowness in retrieving words processed by the Orthological Output Lexicon. Slowness in both phonological awareness and naming speed results in a double deficit.
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Intentional Practice
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This is the practice in which the child learns to self monitor, self correct and how to cope when they do not know what to do. This practice is typical of experts in any skill. Intentional practice is an important principle in reading remediation programs
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Scaffolded Instruction
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-This refers to abundant teacher supports at the initial stage of a student learning a task. Levels of support in scaffolding may vary from modelling the complete performance of a task to simply providing cues for a aspect of a task. Scaffolded instruction can be used during word reading remediation. When using this technique it is important to remember not to expect a student to apply a skill that has just been learned through scaffolding in a different context. Scaffolding must always go with the child back to the classroom. This can be done with cue cards or tables with useful rules. Scaffolding is gradually removed during remediation.
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Empower™
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-This is a word reading remediation program. It was originally as a pilot project offered only at Sick Kids Hospital but it is now available in over 100 schools by teachers with special training in Empower reading strategies and materials. The program follows an apprenticeship model where students are apprentices to an expert reader. Initially the teacher is the expert reader but later on students take turns as experts. This program is scaffolded. Initially, children receive phonological training and are given help in identifying the sounds in words. Then in Unlocking Word Training, they are given strategies in using words that they know in identifying news ones, e.g. sounding out, using parts of words, peeling of prefixes, roots and suffixes. The program makes extensive use of charts of key words already figured out. .
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Factors affecting Reading Comprehension
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-Background knowledge (knowledge of the world, linguistic knowledge)-Language Comprehension (Linguistic knowledge, syntax, vocabulary)-Word Recognition Decoding (including phonological awareness, lecter knowledge, naming speed)
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IRI (Informal Reading Inventories)
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-assess comprehension by asking questions following both oral and silent reading of graded passages-for some, comprehension is better following silent rather than oral reading; the effort involved during oral reading in retrieving words with correct pronunciation may interfere with processing the meaning of what is read-for others, the reverse is true and only by activating output phonology is the words in the text processed sufficiently deeply to enable questions to be answered correctly-IRIs are used to identify the level of material that a client can read and comprehend independently without difficulty and the level of material that might be appropriate to employ during instruction
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Model of Reading Comprehension
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-what the model attempts to show is how the various sources of knowledge that effect reading comprehension are brought to bear moment by moment as you read a test-it also shows the critical role played by working memory-involved many sources of knowledge and skills to develop in working memory a mental representation of the text that will survive in long term memory (e.g. you can read and then pick up the book days letter)
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Working Memory
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-the system that actively holds multiple pieces of transitory information in the mind, where they can be manipulated-Roberta Klatzky's representation shows working memory as a work bench where one constructs 'objects' or ideas which get stored in long-term memory (LTM)
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Anaphoric Reference
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-an important part of comprehension is making bridging inferences that cross sentence boundaries-writers of stories and even speakers during casual conversation make extensive use of what is called anaphoric reference which requires making bridging inferences to make sense of what is read
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Semantic Maps
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-involves using graphic pictures which show the relationships among concepts or events-can be used to assess an develop both vocabulary and prior knowledge; they are particularly useful in science and social studies-can be used as a road map for writing a composition or to keep track of one's representations of texts as or after one reads them
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Text Structures
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-Through the listening of stories read to them, most children implicitly develop knowledge of the structure of narratives-learning and making these text structures explicitly improves comprehension of technical material (gains in story comprehension as well)-children have limited experience with text that relate expository or factual material and those that relate an opinion
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Think Sheets
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-Professors Carol Englert and Taffy Raphael developed "think sheets" to teach expository writing; each think sheet deals separately with a critical component process of composing a short essay on a topic; involves planning, organizing, writing a first draft, thinking about the first draft, editing, revising and final draft-this technique also leads to measurable increases in reading comprehension of expository tests
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Comprehension Strategies
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-Strategies are initially taught in the context of reading short segments of text and demonstrated after the fact-It is expected that with practice, the strategies will become part of student's armor to use when reading alone and which will become activated during working memory as reading proceeds-Strategies include: predicting, verifying, visualizing, relating prior knowledge, summarizing, questioning, clarifying, monitoring, skipping, looking back, setting a goal for reading, browsing or previewing
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Anaphora
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-the use of words as regular grammatical substitutes for either a preceding word or group of words-the child would be required to read the entire passage; the teacher would model a strategy for unlocking the anaphoric relationships by reading the passage aloud and with a pencil in hand ask W-H-questions: what, where, who, when and why at various points in the text that they read
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Key Math Test
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- is a diagnostic math test which includes separate tests of skills in numeration, algebra, geometry, measurement, data analysis, and probability. These tests provide an overall measure of basicconcepts. The test of operations include mental computation and estimating, addition and subtraction, and multiplication and division. The two tests of applications involves problem solving foundations or strategies and applied problems involving money, interpreting graphs, etc.- Key Math subtests: numeration, algebra, geometry, measurement, data analysis and probability, mental computation and estimation, written calculations, foundations of problem solving, applied problem solving.
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"Think Aloud"
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- Informal assessments ask a child to think aloud as they are carrying out calculations or while engaged in solving other math problems.
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Number as Quantities
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- The child is able to perform much better in math when provided with visual or pictorial contexts. Without visual aids, the child does not automatically associate numbers with quantities.
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Right Start/Number Worlds
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- A program designed to provide child with a large variety of experiences using a large variety of games involving counting backwards and forwards and in which simple math concepts could be demonstrated and learned.- A program successful in teaching children critical concepts that numbers indicate quantities, that numbers occupy fixed positions, and that higher numbers indicate larger quantities. - many children were found to excel in math in later grades.
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Base Ten Place Value
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- "clumsy" English or many other languages represent numbers using Arabic base ten place value notion. Chinese language makes this easy as there numbers are represented by numbers 1 through 9. (Ye = 1 er = 2 therefore 12 = ye er). They are simple, single syllable words.
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Counting On/ Counting All
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- counting all strategy is starting at 1 and counting to the number required. (i.e. 2+5 = 1,2,3,4,5,6,7)- counting on is the strategy of counting from one number on. (i.e. 2+5 = 2,3,4,5,6,7). This could also be counting on from the largest number (i.e. 2+5 = 5,6,7)
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Buggy Algorithms
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- errors/mistakes that often stem from mistaken procedure that may in fact be reasonable rules which are applied badly. They are based on rules. Examples are: adding sideways in a two digit problem, subtracting only smaller numbers from larger numbers, having a particular rule when zero occurs in a problem, or lining up numbers on the left and adding down.
