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learning

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relatively permanent changes in behavior produced by experience - specific neural grouping of sensations and movement -change of behavior (motor systems) based on sensory cues (sensory systems)

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motor system

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system that allows behavior changes during learning changes in behavioral circuit that controls a particular behavior

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sensory system

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system that gives you info about the world and our body

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perceptual learning

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learning functions to identify objects and situations learning about objects (being able to recognize a stimulus)

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stimulus-response learning

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involves making a response when a particular stimulus is present -classical and operant conditioning

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motor learning

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involves forming circuits in motor system

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relational learning

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involves identifying connections between stimuli involves connections between individual stimuli ex. forming association between image and sound of an object -spatial learning -episodic learning -observational learning

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unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

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ex. air puff in eye ex. food

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unconditioned response (UCR)

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ex. the blink of eye from air puff ex. salivating

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conditioned stimulus (CS)

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ex. tone from speakers before air puffing eye also the neutral stimulus ex. bell

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conditioned response (CR)

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ex. blink in response to just the tone (without the tone from speakers) ex. salivating

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Hebb's rule

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the hypothesis that the cellular basis of learning involves strengthening of a synapse that is repeatedly active when the postsynaptic neuron fires

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synapse p

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strong occurs from puff of air to an eye that is received by neuron in somatosensory system

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system t

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weak occurs from the presence of a 1000 Hz tone that is received from the auditory system

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hebbian system

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those which are enhanced by coin cent activity between pre and postsynaptic neurons

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pavlovian conditioning

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idea of UCS UCR CS CR can get a dog to salivate by ringing a bell and presenting food

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instrumental conditioning

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involves association between a respond and a subsequent stimulus

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positive reinforcement

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responses that are formed by favorable consequences are more likely to occur in the future

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reinforcement system

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occurs in the context of a stimulus (that can elicit the response)

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reinforcing stimuli

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favorable consequences that cause a response to more likely occur in the future strengthens the connection between the stimuli and response

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punishment

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responses that are followed by unfavorable consequences are less likely to occur in the future

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punishing stimuli

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unfavorable consequences that cause a response to less likely occur in the future

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spatial episodic observational learning

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3 types of relational learning

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spatial learning

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knowing the context of a space and the relationship between the objects in that space -relational learning

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episodic learning

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remembering sequences of events -relational learning

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observational learning

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viewing and recalling the actions of another person -relational learning

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long term potentiation (LTP)

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indexed by increase in PSP size over days and months electrically stimulate the perfornant path and then observe population postsynaptic potential (PSPs) induced (a long-lasting increase in neuronal activity induced by afferent activation) requires rapid stimulation of the perforant path -involves activation of synapses and depolarization of the postsynaptic membrane -involves activation of NMDA receptors in hippocampus

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plasticity

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brain changing in response to learning

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entorhinal cortex

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cells here project via the perforant path to synapse onto granule cells in the dentate gyrus -where LTP is located

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perforant path

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project entorhinal cortex cells onto the granule cells in the denote gyrus high frequency electrical stimulation to area will increase population PSPs

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dentate gyrus

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where cells in entorhinal cortex are projected (by peforant path) onto granule cells here

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population postsynaptic potentials (PSPs)

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progressively increase when perforant pathway is electrically stimulated

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drugs that block NMDA receptor

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block formation of LTP

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NMDA receptor

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in hippocampus controls a calcium channel which is blocked by Mg2+ ions activation requires glutamate AND a depolarized membrane when opened, calcium comes in and AMPA receptor fill dendritic spine and LTP occurs

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calcium channel

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controlled by NMDA receptors blocked by magnesium ions

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magnesium ions

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ejected from calcium channel when the membrane is depolarized -blocks calcium channel

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depolarization of membrane

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evicts the magnesium ion and unblocks the calcium channel allows glutamate to open the ion channel and permit entry of calcium ions

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glutamate

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responsible for opening (unblocking) the calcium channel once depolarization of membrane occurs

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Backpropagation of dendritic spike

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primes NMDA receptors and strengthens weak synapses

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1. AMPA receptor 2. alteration of synaptic structure

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LTP may results from... (2)

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AMPA receptor

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an ionotropic glutamate receptor that controls a soda channel when open, produces EPSPs can cause LTP (created stronger depolarization thus stronger synapse)

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perforated synapses

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formed after long term potentiation (LTP) occurs to dendritic spine split in terminal button creates branches spine

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calcium kinase (CaM-KII)

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activated by structural changes of synapse depending on entry of calcium ions results in de novo protein synthesis and gene transcription

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PCM-zeta

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• Important for bringing AMPA receptors to dendritic spine • Constantly produced

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Pin1

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blocks PCM-zeta from being translated when there is no calcium

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calcium

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activates CAM Kinase II and nitric oxide synthase

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nitric oxide (NO)

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increased activity by activation of NMDA receptors via calcium diffuses into presynaptic terminals and may increase glutamate release from presynaptic terminal

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Drugs that block the synthesis of NO

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block the establishment of LTP in hippocampal slices

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induction maintenance

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2 phases of LTP

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induction

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1st phase of LTP high-frequency stimulation (titanic stimulation) involves NMDA and AMPA

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titanic stimulation

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high frequency stimulation during induction phase of LTP

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protein synthesis

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required for LTP maintenance

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structural changes caused by LTP

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increase # synapses perforated synapses # of vesicles in presynaptic terminal complexity of synapse

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AP5

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in hippocampus a drug that blocks NMDA receptors blocks long term decrease of input strength after low-frequency stimulation (requiring NMDA receptors)

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long-term description (LTD)

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associated with decreased # of AMPA receptors at synapse lower concentration of calico long term decrease of input strength after low-frequency stimulation requires NMDA receptors because AP5 blocks it involves dephosphorylation of AMPA receptors

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visual perceptual learning

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has a dorsal stream and ventral stream

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dorsal stream

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of visual perceptual learning carries info as to where an object is in space posterior parietal to frontal lobe

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ventral stream

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of visual perceptual learning carries info as to what an object is inferior temporal (TE and TEO) to frontal lobe

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PET studies

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document dorsal/ ventral stream activation during object and spatial memory tasks measures activity in human brain

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visual short term memory (STM)

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indexed by delayed matching-to-sample tasks depends on visual association cortex and on prefrontal cortex

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classical conditioning

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stimuli that are associated with situations that have emotional consequences are more easily remembered helps UCR become CR

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conditioned emotional response (CER)

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established by pairing a neutral stimulus (tone) with aversive stimulus tone becomes a CS instead of neutral elects same response as UCS

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amygdala

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involved in a particular form of stimulus-response learning (classically conditioned emotional responses)

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aversive stimulus

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ex. painful foot shock produces a variety of behavioral, autonomic, and hormonal responses: freezing, increased bp, secretion of adrenal stress hormones, etc.

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lateral nucleus of amygdala (LA)

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contains neurons whose axons project to central nucleus (CN) processes the CS (tone) and US (foothsock) info US--> UR CS--> CER through strengthening of synapse via Hebb Rule

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terminal buttons

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from neurons that transmit auditory and somatosensory info to the lateral nucleus form synapses with dendritic spines

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S-R learning

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connections between sensory association cortex and motor cortex are made by transcortical connections and basal ganglia (thalamic connections)

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basal ganglia lesions (BG)

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disrupt instrumental conditioning and habit learning

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thalamic connections

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as behaviors become more habitual, basal ganglia takes over in a constant contact with frontal cortex

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transcortical connections

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complex behaviors that are used for instruction (ex. learning to drive)

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globus palidus

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all the basal ganglia gets input from primary motor and somatosensory cortex and feedback to the supplementary motor area

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brain areas involved in reinforcement

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1) medial forebrain bundle (MFB) 2) ventral tegmental area (VTA) 3) nucleus accubends

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medial forebrain bundle (MFB)

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a fiber bundle that runs in the rostra;-caudal direction through the basal forebrain and lateral hypothalamus electrical stimulation of these axons is REINFORCING

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ventral tegmental area (VTA)

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a group of dopaminergic neurons in the ventral midbrain whose axons form the mesolimbic and mesocortical system plays a critical role in reinforcement

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nucleus accumbens

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a nucleus of the basal forebrain near the septum receives dopamine-secreting terminal buttons from neurons of the ventral segmental area is thought to be involved in reinforcement and attention -where dopamine agonists are self-injected by rats

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reinforcement

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involves activation of brain mechanisms that increase the likelihood that a response will occur induced by electrical stim of brain

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dopamine

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neurotransmitter that plays a critical role in reinforcement (mesolimbic)

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mesolimbic dopamine system

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begins in the ventral (VTA) and terminates in the nucleus accumbens and amygdala helps induce reinforcement

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nigrostrital systems

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project from ubstantia nigra to caudate nucleus and putamen control of movement

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mesolimbic system

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projects from ventral segmental areas (VTA) to limbic system (nucleus accumbent, amygdala and hippocampus) reinforcement and reward

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mesocortical system

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projects from ventral segmental area (VTA) to cortex -short term memory, planning strategy for problem solving

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dopamine receptor antagonists

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interfere with reinforcement

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dopamine agonists

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self-injected by rats into nucleus accumbent

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-drugs of abuse (amphetamine and cocaine) -natural reinforcers (food when hungry)

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increase extracellular dopamine levels in nucleus accumbens increase (2)

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anterograde amnesia

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involves a difficulty in forming new memories for events that occur after a brain trauma -difficulty learning new material -incldues a disorder of relational learning -from bilateral damage to hippocampus

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retrograde amnesia

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inability to recall events that occurred prior to the trauma

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declarative memory

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memories that can be verbally expressed such as memory for events in a person's past

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non declarative memories

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memories whose formation does not depend on the hippocampal formation; a collective term for perceptual, stimulus-response and motor memory

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medial temporal lobe (including hippocampus)

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was removed from patient HM to minimize his epilepsy produced severe anterograde amnesia

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HM patient

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mpaired- knowing that, memory with record, explicit declarative memory removal of medial temporal lobe created problem with transfer of short term memory to long term memory

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korsakoff's syndrome

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a severe form of anterograde amnesia associated with chronic alcoholism -thiamine deficiency producing brain damage -confabulation -mammillary body degeneration connects thalamus and hippocampus

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confabulation

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person with korsakoff's syndrome unknowingly creates fictional memories

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consolidation

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process by which rehearsal of info of short term memory results in transfer to long term memory by chunking if you interrupt, can interfere

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explicit memory

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memory for facts and events MEDIAL TEMPORAL LOBE was damaged in HM patient

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implicit memory

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memory for priming, procedural, associative learning (operant, classical), non-associative learning (habitual and sensitization) procedural memory and habits BASAL GANGLIA

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hippocampus

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structure responsible for chickadee knowing where they stored their food allows us to navigate the world activated during spatial tasks (virtual reality, etc)

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radial-arm maze

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tests relational learning in rats must keep track of which arms he's already went in and which will have food still tests hippocampus

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morris water maze

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tests relational learning in rats place learning tests hippocampus

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hippocampus lesion

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disrupts learning destroys rats ability to find platform during morris water maze

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neocortical control lesion

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performed for morris water maze to make sure it is the hippocampus lesion that actually is affecting it

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place learning

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based on the configuration of visual cues testes in morris water maze

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place cells

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in hippocampus location-specific intense activity only when the rats head in certain position on the rat was in a specific location different ones respond to different spatial receptive fields do NOT make up a topographic representation of space within he hippocampus pattern of activity in hip neural circuits

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synaptogenesis

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formation of new synaptic connections (historical misconception that brains are hard wired) • Experience-induced changes In synapses in adult animals

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enriched environments

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helped exhibit neural changes: thicker cortex more glial cells more synapses more vasculature

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deprivation-related changes

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less vasculature less synapses less glial cells thinner cortex

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