AP Psych Vocab Learning and Memory – Flashcards
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acquisition
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the cognitive process of acquiring skill or knowledge
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associative learning
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learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).
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avoidance learning
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learning to avoid events or conditions associated with dreaded or aversive outcomes
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behavior modification
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..., changing one's choices or actions by manipulating the cues that trigger the actions, the actions themselves, or the consequences of the actions
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classical conditioning
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..., conditioning that pairs a neutral stimulus with a stimulus that evokes a reflex
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cognitive learning
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..., learning that depends on mental processes that are not directly observable
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conditioned reinforcers
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..., stimuli that acquire their reinforcing power through their association with primary reinforcers
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conditioned response
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..., in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS).
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conditioned stimulus
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..., in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response
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continuous reinforcement
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..., reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs
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discrimination
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..., in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus
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extinction
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..., the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.
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extrinsic motivation
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..., a desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment
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fixed interval schedule
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..., in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed
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fixed ratio schedule
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..., in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses
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generalization
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..., (psychology) transfer of a response learned to one stimulus to a similar stimulus
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higher-order conditioning
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..., a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning.)
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imprinting
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..., the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life
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instinctive drift
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..., tendency for an animal's behavior to revert to genetically controlled patterns
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intermittent reinforcement
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..., A reinforcement schedule in which a designated response is reinforced only some of the time.
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intrinsic motivation
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..., a desire to perform a behavior for its own sake
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latent learning
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..., learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it
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law of effect
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Thorndike; (psychology) the principle that behaviors are selected by their consequences
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learning
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a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience
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matching law
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..., The principle that the proportion of responses emitted on a particular schedule matches the proportion of reinforcers obtained on that schedule.
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modeling
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..., the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior
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mirror neurons
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..., frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so
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negative reinforcement
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..., increasing the strength of a given response by removing or preventing a painful stimulus when the response occurs
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neutral stimulus
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..., a stimulus that does not initially elicit a response
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observational learning
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..., learning by observing others
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operant conditioning
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..., a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher
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partial reinforcement
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..., reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement
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phobias
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..., irrational fears of specific objects or situations.
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positive reinforcement
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..., increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response
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primary reinforcers
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..., reinforcers that meet an organism's basic needs, such as food and water
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punishment
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..., can be either positive or negative, intended to reduce the occurrence of a behavior
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reinforcement
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..., (psychology) a stimulus that strengthens or weakens the behavior that produced it
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respondent behavior
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..., behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus; Skinner's term for behavior learned through classical conditioning
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secondary reinforcers
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..., stimuli that increase the probability of a response because of their association with a primary reinforcer
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shaping
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..., an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior
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spontaneous recovery
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..., the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response
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unconditioned response
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..., in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.
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unconditioned stimulus
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..., in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response.
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variable interval schedule
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..., in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals
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variable ratio schedule
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..., in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses
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acoustic encoding
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..., the encoding of sound, especially the sound of words
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anterograde amnesia
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..., loss of memory for events immediately following a trauma
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chunking
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..., organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically
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clustering
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..., Organizing items into related groups during recall from long-term memory
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conceptual hierarchy
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..., a multilevel classification system based on common properties among items
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consolidation
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..., the process of changing a short-term memory to a long-term one
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decay theory
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..., The idea that forgetting occurs because memory traces fade with time.
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declarative memory
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..., It refers to memories which can be consciously recalled such as facts and events.
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dual coding theory
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..., memory is enhanced by using both semantic and visual codes since either can lead to recall
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echoic memory
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..., a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds
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elaboration
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..., linking a stimulus to other information at the time of encoding
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encoding
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..., First stage of the memory process; in it information is transformed or coded (a transduction process) into a form that can be processed further and stored
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episodic memory
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..., category of long-term memory that includes memories of particular events
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explicit memory
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..., memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare." (Also called declarative memory.)
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flashbulb memory
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..., a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event
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iconic memory
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..., a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second
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implicit memory
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..., memories we don't deliberately remember or reflect on consciously
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levels of processing theory
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..., Theory that recall of information is based on how deeply it is processed
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long term memory
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..., the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system
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long term potentiation
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..., a possible source of the formation of memories; improvement in a neuron's ability to transmit caused by repeated stimulations
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memory
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..., the power of retaining and recalling past experience
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method of loci
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..., use of familiar locations as cues to recall items that have been associated with them
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mnemonics
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..., memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
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Procedural Memory/nondeclaraative memory
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..., memory for skills, including perceptual, motor, and cognitive skills required to complete tasks
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Overlearning
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..., A technique used to improve memory where information is learned to the point that it can be repeated without mistake more than one time.
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proactive interference
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..., when prior learning disrupts the recall of new information
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Prospective Memory
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..., remembering to do things in the future
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Recall
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..., recall knowledge from memory
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Recognition
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..., the process of recognizing something or someone by remembering
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Rehearsal
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..., (psychology) a form of practice
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Relearning
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..., reacquiring knowledge that we'd previously learned but largely forgotten over time
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Retention
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..., the power of retaining and recalling past experience
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Retrieval
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..., the cognitive operation of accessing information in memory
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Retroactive interference
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..., disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information
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Retrograde Amnesia
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..., loss of memories that were stored before a traumatic event
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Retrospecitve Memory
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..., remembering information from the past
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Schema
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..., a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information
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Semantic Memory
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..., a network of associated facts and concepts that make up our general knowledge of the world
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Sensory Memory
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..., the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system
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Serial Position Effect
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..., Tendency for items at the beginning and end of a list to be learned better than items in the middle
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Short Term Memory
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..., activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten
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Spacing Effect
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..., the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice
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Storage
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..., the retention of encoded information over time
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tip of the tongue Phenomenon
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..., condition of being almost, but not quite, able to remember something; used to investigate the nature of semantic memory
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Visual Encoding
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..., the encoding of picture images
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Working Memory
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..., active maintenance of information in short-term storage
