AP Biology Unit 1 Terms – Flashcards
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classical conditioning
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associative learning in which an arbitrary (something not usually associated with that behavior) stimulus becomes associated with a particular outcome (out of their control)
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operant conditioning
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an animal learns to associate a behavior with a reward or punishment and tends to repeat or avoid that behavior; "trial and error learning"
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proximate causation
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explanation of how a stimulus elicits a behavior
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ultimate causation
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evolutionary explanation of why a behavior occurs (the benefit to survival/reproduction or evolutionary significance
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fixed action pattern
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a sequence of unlearned acts that is essentially unchangeable
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imprinting
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formation at a specific stage in life of a long-lasting behavioral response to a specific individual/object
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altruism
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behavior that reduces an individual's fitness, while increasing the fitness of another individual - selflessness
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kin selection
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natural selection that favors altruistic behavior by enhancing the reproductive success of relatives
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reciprocal altruism
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altruistic individual benefits in the future when the unrelated beneficiary reciprocates
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innate behavior
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developmentally fixed; under strong genetic influence; instinct
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kinesis
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random movement in a dangerous environment, until it gets to a more favorable place where it stops moving
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taxis
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deliberate, direct movement; chosen direction based on environment
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spatial learning
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complex modification of behavior based on experience with spatial structure of environment
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agonistic behavior
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defending territory, pecking order
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relative dating
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relates the age of something compared to other things
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absolute dating
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age given in years rather than in terms of "before" and "after"
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adaptive radiations
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periods when many new species are formed because an evolutionary change allows them to fill new ecological roles in their communities; occur after mass extinctions
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analogy
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similarities between two species due to convergent evolution
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homology
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similarities in characteristics that are a result of shared ancestry between organisms
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Domains
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Archaea, Bacteria, Eukarya
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parsimony
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the most simple explanation with the fewest evolutionary events; KISS (Keep It Simple, Stupid)
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order of classification key
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Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species
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phylogeny
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evolutionary history; ancestry
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ways to compare phylogeny
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amino acid sequences, protein sequences, DNA, homologous structures, vestigial organs
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lytic cycle
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host cell is killed when it breaks open and releases the phages that it produced
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lysogenic cycle
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host cell replicates viral DNA as well as its own; it's daughter cells also carry the prophage
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prions
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slow acting, virtually indestructible infectious proteins in the nervous system that cause brain diseases in mammals; they cause normal proteins to change shape
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HIV
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retrovirus that infects white blood cells; hides in the immune system
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Herpes
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virus that hides in the nervous system
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vaccine
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harmless injection of diluted virus or capsids that stimulates the immune system to mount defenses against the actual pathogen if it comes in contact with it again
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karyogamy
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the fusion of two gametic nuclei during fertilization
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plasmogamy
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fusion of two or more cells without fusion of the nuclei, as occurs in higher terrestrial fungi
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coenocytic
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a mass of protoplasm containing many nuclei and enclosed by a cell wall: occurs in many fungi and some algae
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mycorrhiza
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a symbiotic association of the mycelium of a fungus, especially a basidiomycete, with the roots of certain plants, in which the hyphae form a closely woven mass around the rootlets or penetrate the cells of the root
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mycelium
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the mass of hyphae that form the vegetative part of a fungus
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hyphae
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the threadlike elements of the mycelium
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dikaryotic
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cell with two nuclei that can be the identical or not
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haustoria
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projections from the hyphae of a fungus into the organic matter from which it absorbs nutrients
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saprobes
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organisms that derive their nourishment from nonliving or decaying organic matter
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species
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group of populations whose members could potentially interbreed in nature and produce viable, fertile offspring
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allopatric speciation
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occurs when a population is geographically divided and gene flow is interrupted
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sympatric speciation
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occurs when a reproductive barrier forms between two populations while they are still in contact with each other; caused by polyploidy, sexual selection, and habitat differentiation
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habitat differentiation
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subpopulations use a habitat or resource the parent population didn't and are then favored by natural selection
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sexual selection
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gene flow occurs between two species when the females of one species prefer the coloration of breeding males in the other species to the coloration of their own males
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punctuated equilibria
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periods where a change suddenly happens, seemingly out of nowhere
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macroevolution
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evolutionary change above the species level dealing with the entire species
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prezygotic barrier
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impede mating or hinder fertilization ex: habitat, behavioral, temporal, mechanical isolation
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postzygotic barrier
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prevents zygote from developing into viable offspring ex: reduced hybrid viability, reduced hybrid fertility, hybrid breakdown
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autopolyploid
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individual that has more than 2 chromosome sets from a single species - doesn't divide correctly by itself
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allopolyploid
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species with multiple sets of chromosomes derived from different species - two different species fuse their gametes (extra chromosomes)
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stabilizing selection
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reduces variation and favors intermediate phenotypes; individuals with more extreme phenotypes don't survive as well
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directional selection
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when an environment favors a certain range of phenotypes
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disruptive selection
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when individuals with extreme phenotypes have an advantage over ones with intermediate phenotypes
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genetic drift
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alters allele frequency in SMALL populations through chance events and unpredictable changes
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gene flow
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movement of fertile individuals in or out of a population; reduces differences between populations over time
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Hardy Weinberg conditions
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no mutations, extremely large population, random mating, no natural selection, and no gene flow
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Darwinian fitness
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refers to the number of offspring one has
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bottleneck effect
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drastically reduces the size of a population - less variation
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founder effect
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a few individuals become isolated from a large population - allele frequency goes up
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sexual dimorphism
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marked differences between the sexes in secondary sexual characteristics
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quorum sensing
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bacteria release chemical signal molecules to communicate with other organisms
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biofilm
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surface coating material released by bacteria for protection
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conditions of natural selection
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competition, variation/mutation, more born than can survive, best adapted survive and reproduce, POPULATIONS evolve, not individuals
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characteristics of early earth
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not much oxygen, hot, volcanoes, sulfur & methane gas, carbon dioxide
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monophyletic
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common ancestor and all the species that come from it
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LaMarke's hypothesis
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animals are able to control their anatomy (giraffe's can stretch their necks to make them longer)
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transformation (genetic diversity)
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bacteria absorb DNA from foreign organisms
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transduction (genetic diversity)
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a VIRUS inserts a piece of DNA from one bacteria into a different bacteria
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conjugation (genetic diversity)
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one bacteria donates a copy of a PLASMID to another bacteria through a sex bridge
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reasons prokaryotes are successful
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mutate fast, reproduce quickly and a lot at a time, form endospores, diverse, small, plasmids (conjugation), biofilm for protection, quorum sensing
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endospore
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a rounded, inactive form that certain bacteria assume under under conditions of extreme temperature, dryness, or lack of food
