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Behaviorism

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A theory of human development that studies observable behavior. Behaviorism is also called learning theory because it describes the laws and processes by which behavior is learned.

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Classical conditioning

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A learning process in which a meaningful stimulus (such as the smell of food to a hungry animal) gradually comes to be connected with a neutral stimulus (such as a particular sound) that had no special meaning before the learning process began.

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Cognitive theory

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A theory of human development that focuses on changes in how people think over time. According to this theory, our thoughts shape our attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors.

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Cohort

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A group defined by the shared age of its members, who, because they were born at about the same time, move through life together, experiencing the same historical events and cultural shifts.

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Conditioning

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According to behaviorism, the processes by which responses become linked to particular stimuli and learning takes place. The word conditioning is used to emphasize the importance of repeated practice, as when an athlete conditions his or her body to perform well by training for a long time.

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Correlation

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A number that indicates the degree of relationship between two variables, expressed in terms of the likelihood that one variable will (or will not) occur when the other variable does (or does not). A correlation indicates only that two variables are related, not that one variable causes the other to occur.

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Critical period

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A time when a particular type of developmental growth (in body or behavior) must happen if it is ever going to happen.

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Cross-sectional-research

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A research design that compares groups of people who differ in age but are similar in other important characteristics.

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Cross-sequential-research

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A hybrid research design in which researchers first study several groups of people of different ages (a cross-sectional approach) and then follow those groups over the years (a longitudinal approach). (Also called cohort-sequential research or time-sequential research.)

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Developmental theory

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A group of ideas, assumptions, and generalizations that interpret and illuminate the thousands of observations that have been made about human growth. A developmental theory provides a framework for explaining the patterns and problems of development.

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Difference-equal-deficit-error

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The mistaken belief that a deviation from some norm is necessarily inferior to behavior or characteristics that meet the standard.

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Differential sensitivity

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The idea that some people are more vulnerable than others are to certain experiences, usually because of genetic differences.

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Dynamic-systems approach

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A view of human development as an ongoing, ever-changing interaction between a person's physical and emotional being and between the person and every aspect of his or her environment, including the family and society.

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Ecological-systems approach

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The view that in the study of human development, the person should be considered in all the contexts and interactions that constitute a life. (Later renamed bioecological theory.)

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Epigenetic

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Referring to the effects of environmental forces on the expression of an individual's, or a species', genetic inheritance.

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Humanism

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A theory that stresses the potential of all human beings for good and the belief that all people have the same basic needs, regardless of culture, gender, or background.

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Lifespan perspective

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An approach to the study of human development that takes into account all phases of life, not just childhood or adulthood.

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Longitudinal-research

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A research design in which the same individuals are followed over time and their development is repeatedly assessed.

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Operant conditioning

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A learning process in which a particular action is followed either by something desired (which makes the person or animal more likely to repeat the action) or by something unwanted (which makes the action less likely to be repeated). (Also called instrumental conditioning.)

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Psychoanalytic theory

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A theory of human development that holds that irrational, unconscious drives and motives, often originating in childhood, underlie human behavior.

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Reinforcement

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A technique for conditioning a particular behavior in which that behavior is followed by something desired, such as food for a hungry animal or a welcoming smile for a lonely person.

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Sensitive period

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A time when a certain type of development is most likely to happen or happens most easily, although it may still happen later with more difficulty. For example, early childhood is considered a sensitive period for language learning.

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Social construction

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An idea that is based on shared perceptions, not on objective reality. Many age-related terms, such as childhood, adolescence, yuppie, and senior citizen, are social constructions.

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Social learning theory

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An extension of behaviorism that emphasizes that other people influence each person's behavior. The theory's basic principle is that even without specific reinforcement, every individual learns many things through observation and imitation of other people.

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Additive gene

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A gene that adds something to some aspect of the phenotype. Its contribution depends on additions from the other genes, which may come from either the same or the other parent.

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Age of viability

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The age (about 22 weeks after conception) at which a fetus may survive outside the mother's uterus if specialized medical care is available.

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Allele

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Any of the possible forms in which a gene for a particular trait can occur.

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Behavioral teratogens

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Agents and conditions that can harm the prenatal brain, impairing the future child's intellectual and emotional functioning.

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Apgar scale

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A quick assessment of a newborn's body functioning. The baby's heart rate, respiratory effort, muscle tone, color, and reflexes are given a score of 0, 1, or 2 twice—at one minute and five minutes after birth—and each time the total of all five scores is compared with the ideal score of 10 (which is rarely attained).

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Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale

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A test often administered to newborns that measures responsiveness and records 46 behaviors, including 20 reflexes.

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Anoxia

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A lack of oxygen that, if prolonged, can cause brain damage or death.

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Carrier

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A person whose genotype includes a gene that is not expressed in the phenotype. Such an unexpressed gene occurs in half the carrier's gametes and thus is passed on to half the carrier's children, who will most likely be carriers, too. Generally, the characteristic appears in the phenotype only when such a gene is inherited from both parents.

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Cerebral palsy

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A disorder that results from damage to the brain's motor centers. People with cerebral palsy have difficulty with muscle control, so their speech and/or body movements are impaired.

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Cesarean section

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A surgical birth, in which incisions through the mother's abdomen and uterus allow the fetus to be removed quickly, instead of being delivered through the vagina.

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Chromosomes

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One of the 46 molecules of DNA (in 23 pairs) that each cell of the human body contains and that, together, contain all the genes. Other species have more or fewer chromosomes.

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Couvade

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Symptoms of pregnancy and birth experienced by fathers.

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DNA

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The molecule that contains the chemical instructions for cells to manufacture various proteins.

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Dominant-recessive pattern

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The interaction of a pair of alleles in such a way that the phenotype reveals the influence of one allele (the dominant gene) more than that of the other (the recessive gene).

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Doula

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A woman who helps with the birth process. Doulas are trained to offer support to new mothers, including massage and suggestions for breast-feeding positions.

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Down Syndrome

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A condition in which a person has 47 chromosomes instead of the usual 46, with three rather than two chromosomes at the 21st position. People with Down syndrome typically have distinctive characteristics, including unusual facial features (thick tongue, round face, slanted eyes), heart abnormalities, and language difficulties. (Also called trisomy-21.)

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Embryo

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The name for a developing human organism from about the third through the eighth week after conception.

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Embryonic period

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The stage of prenatal development from approximately the third through the eighth week after conception, during which the basic forms of all body structures, including internal organs, develop.

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Extremely low birth weight

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A body weight at birth of less than 2 pounds, 3 ounces (1,000 grams).

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Fetal Alcohol Syndrome

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A cluster of birth defects, including abnormal facial characteristics, slow physical growth, and intellectual disabilities, that may occur in the child of a woman who drinks alcohol while pregnant.

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Fetal period

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The stage of prenatal development from the ninth week after conception until birth, during which the fetus grows in size and matures in functioning.

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Fetus

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The name for a developing human organism from the start of the ninth week after conception until birth.

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Gamete

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A reproductive cell; that is, a sperm or an ovum that can produce a new individual if it combines with a gamete from the other sex to form a zygote.

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Genome

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The full set of genes that are the instructions to make an individual member of a certain species.

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Genotype

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An organism's entire genetic inheritance, or genetic potential.

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Germinal period

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The first two weeks of prenatal development after conception, characterized by rapid cell division and the beginning of cell differentiation.

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Heritability

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A statistic that indicates what percentage of the variation in a particular trait within a particular population, in a particular context and era, can be traced to genes.

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Hispanic paradox

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The surprising discovery that, although low SES usually correlates with poor health, this is not true for Hispanics in the United States. For example, when compared with the U.S. average LBW rate, Hispanic newborns are less often of low birthweight.

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Implantation

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The process, beginning about 10 days after conception, in which the developing organism burrows into the tissue that lines the uterus, where it can be nourished and protected as it continues to develop.

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Kangaroo care

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A child-care technique in which a new mother holds the baby between her breasts, like a kangaroo that carries her immature newborn in a pouch on her abdomen.

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Low birth weight

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A body weight at birth of less than 5½ pounds (2,500 grams).

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Monozygotic twins

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Twins who originate from one zygote that splits apart very early in development. (Also called identical twins.)

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Parent-infant bond

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The strong, loving connection that forms as parents hold, examine, and feed their newborn.

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Phenotype

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The observable characteristics of a person, including appearance, personality, intelligence, and all other traits.

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Postpartum depression

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The sadness and inadequacy felt by some new mothers in the days and weeks after giving birth.

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Preterm birth

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A birth that occurs three or more weeks before the full 38 weeks of the typical pregnancy have elapsed—that is, at 35 or fewer weeks after conception.

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Reflex

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An unlearned, involuntary action or movement in response to a stimulus. A reflex occurs without conscious thought.

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Small for gestational age

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Having a body weight at birth that is significantly lower than expected, given the time since conception. For example, a 5-pound (2,265-gram) newborn is considered SGA if born on time but not SGA if born two months early. (Also called small-for-dates.)

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Stem cells

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Cells from which any other specialized type of cell can form.

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Teratogen

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Any agent or condition, including viruses, drugs, and chemicals, that can impair prenatal development, resulting in birth defects or complications.

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Threshold effect

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A situation in which a certain teratogen is relatively harmless in small doses but becomes harmful once exposure reaches a certain level (the threshold).

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Ultrasound

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An image of a fetus (or an internal organ) produced by using high-frequency sound waves. (Also called sonogram.)

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Very low birth weight

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A body weight at birth of less than 3 pounds, 5 ounces (1,500 grams).

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X linked

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A gene carried on the X chromosome. If a male inherits an X-linked recessive trait from his mother, he expresses that trait because the Y from his father has no counteracting gene. Females are more likely to be carriers of X-linked traits but are less likely to express them.

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Zygote

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The single cell that is formed from the fusing of two gametes, a sperm and an ovum.

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Axons

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A fiber that extends from a neuron and transmits electrochemical impulses from that neuron to the dendrites of other neurons.

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Babbling

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The extended repetition of certain syllables, such as ba-ba-ba, that begins when babies are between 6 and 9 months old.

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Binocular vision

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The ability to focus the two eyes in a coordinated manner in order to see one image.

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Child-directed speech

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: The high-pitched, simplified, and repetitive way adults speak to infants. (Also called baby talk or motherese.)

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Co-sleeping

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A custom in which parents and their children (usually infants) sleep together in the same bed.

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Cortex

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The outer layers of the brain in humans and other mammals. Most thinking, feeling, and sensing involve the cortex.

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Deferred imitation

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A sequence in which an infant first perceives something done by someone else and then performs the same action hours or even days later.

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Dendrites

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A fiber that extends from a neuron and receives electrochemical impulses transmitted from other neurons via their axons.

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Fine motor skills

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Physical abilities involving small body movements, especially of the hands and fingers, such as drawing and picking up a coin. (The word fine here means "small.")

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Grammar

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All the methods—word order, verb forms, and so on—that languages use to communicate meaning, apart from the words themselves.

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Gross motor skills

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Physical abilities involving large body movements, such as walking and jumping. (The word gross here means "big.")

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Head-sparing

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A biological mechanism that protects the brain when malnutrition disrupts body growth. The brain is the last part of the body to be damaged by malnutrition.

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Holophrase

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A single word that is used to express a complete, meaningful thought.

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Hybrid theory

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A perspective that combines various aspects of different theories to explain how language, or any other developmental phenomenon, occurs.

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Immunization

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A process that stimulates the body's immune system to defend against attack by a particular contagious disease. Immunization may be accomplished either naturally (by having the disease) or through vaccination (often by having an injection). (Also called vaccination.)

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Information-processing theory

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A perspective that compares human thinking processes, by analogy, to computer analysis of data, including sensory input, connections, stored memories, and output.

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kwashiorkor

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A disease of chronic malnutrition during childhood, in which a protein deficiency makes the child more vulnerable to other diseases, such as measles, diarrhea, and influenza.

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Language acquisition

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Chomsky's term for a hypothesized mental structure that enables humans to learn language, including the basic aspects of grammar, vocabulary, and intonation.

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Little scientist

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The stage-five toddler (age 12 to 18 months) who experiments without anticipating the results, using trial and error in active and creative exploration.

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Marasmus

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A disease of severe protein-calorie malnutrition during early infancy, in which growth stops, body tissues waste away, and the infant eventually dies.

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Mirror neurons

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Cells in an observer's brain that respond to an action performed by someone else in the same way they would if the observer had actually performed that action.

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Motor skills

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The learned abilities to move some part of the body, in actions ranging from a large leap to a flicker of the eyelid. (The word motor here refers to movement of muscles.)

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Naming explosion

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A sudden increase in an infant's vocabulary, especially in the number of nouns, that begins at about 18 months of age.

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Neurons

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One of billions of nerve cells in the central nervous system, especially in the brain.

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Neurotransmitters

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A brain chemical that carries information from the axon of a sending neuron to the dendrites of a receiving neuron.

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Norm

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An average, or standard, measurement, calculated from the measurements of many individuals within a specific group or population.

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Object permanence

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The realization that objects (including people) still exist even if they can no longer be seen, touched, or heard.

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Perception

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The mental processing of sensory information when the brain interprets a sensation.

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Prefrontal cortex

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The area of the cortex at the very front of the brain that specializes in anticipation, planning, and impulse control.

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Protein-calorie malnutrition

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A condition in which a person does not consume sufficient food of any kind. This deprivation can result in several illnesses, severe weight loss, and even death.

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Pruning

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When applied to brain development, the process by which unused connections in the brain atrophy and die.

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REM

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A stage of sleep characterized by flickering eyes behind closed lids, dreaming, and rapid brain waves.

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Reminder session

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A perceptual experience that is intended to help a person recollect an idea, a thing, or an experience, without testing whether the person remembers it at the moment.

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Self-righting

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The inborn drive to remedy a developmental deficit; literally, to return to sitting or standing upright after being tipped over. People of all ages have self-righting impulses, for emotional as well as physical imbalance.

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Sensation

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The response of a sensory system (eyes, ears, skin, tongue, nose) when it detects a stimulus.

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Sensorimotor intelligence

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Piaget's term for the way infants think—by using their senses and motor skills—during the first period of cognitive development.

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Shaken baby syndrome

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A life-threatening injury that occurs when an infant is forcefully shaken back and forth, a motion that ruptures blood vessels in the brain and breaks neural connections.

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Stunting

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The failure of children to grow to a normal height for their age due to severe and chronic malnutrition.

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Synapses

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The intersection between the axon of one neuron and the dendrites of other neurons.

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Synaptic gap

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The pathway across which neurotransmitters carry information from the axon of the sending neuron to the dendrites of the receiving neuron.

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Transient exuberance

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The great but temporary increase in the number of dendrites that develop in an infant's brain during the first two years of life.

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Wasting

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The tendency for children to be severely underweight for their age as a result of malnutrition.

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Allocare

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Literally, "other-care"; the care of children by people other than the biological parents.

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Attachment

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According to Ainsworth, "an affectional tie" that an infant forms with a caregiver—a tie that binds them together in space and endures over time.

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Autonomy versus shame and doubt

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Erikson's second crisis of psychosocial development. Toddlers either succeed or fail in gaining a sense of self-rule over their actions and their bodies.

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Center day care

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Child care that occurs in a place especially designed for the purpose, where several paid adults care for many children. Usually, the children are grouped by age, the day-care center is licensed, and providers are trained and certified in child development.

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Cortisol

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The primary stress hormone; fluctuations in the body's cortisol level affect human emotion.

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Disorganized attachment

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A type of attachment that is marked by an infant's inconsistent reactions to the caregiver's departure and return.

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Distal parenting

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Caregiving practices that involve remaining distant from the baby, providing toys, food, and face-to-face communication with minimal holding and touching.

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Family day care

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Child care that includes several children of various ages and usually occurs in the home of a woman who is paid to provide it.

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Insecure-avoidant attachment

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A pattern of attachment in which an infant avoids connection with the caregiver, as when the infant seems not to care about the caregiver's presence, departure, or return.

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Insecure-resistant/ambivalent attachment

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A pattern of attachment in which an infant's anxiety and uncertainty are evident, as when the infant becomes very upset at separation from the caregiver and both resists and seeks contact on reunion.

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Proximal parenting

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Caregiving practices that involve being physically close to the baby, with frequent holding and touching.

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Secure attachment

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A relationship in which an infant obtains both comfort and confidence from the presence of his or her caregiver.

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Self-awarness

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A person's realization that he or she is a distinct individual whose body, mind, and actions are separate from those of other people.

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Separation anxiety

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An infant's distress when a familiar caregiver leaves, most obvious between 9 and 14 months.

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Social learning

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The acquisition of behavior patterns by observing the behavior of others.

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Social referencing

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Seeking information about how to react to an unfamiliar or ambiguous object or event by observing someone else's expressions and reactions. That other person becomes a social reference.

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Social smile

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A smile evoked by a human face, normally first evident in infants about 6 weeks after birth.

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Still-face technique

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An experimental practice in which an adult keeps his or her face unmoving and expressionless in face-to-face interaction with an infant.

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Strange situation

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A laboratory procedure for measuring attachment by evoking infants' reactions to the stress of various adults' comings and goings in an unfamiliar playroom.

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Stranger wariness

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An infant's expression of concern—a quiet stare when clinging to a familiar person, or a look of sadness— when a stranger appears.

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Synchrony

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A coordinated, rapid, and smooth exchange of responses between a caregiver and an infant.

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Temperament

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Inborn differences between one person and another in emotions, activity, and self-regulation. It is measured by the person's typical responses to the environment.

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Trust vs. Mistrust

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Erikson's first crisis of psychosocial development. Infants learn basic trust if the world is a secure place where their basic needs (for food, comfort, attention, and so on) are met.

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Working model

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In cognitive theory, a set of assumptions that the individual uses to organize perceptions and experiences. For example, a person might assume that other people are trust-worthy and be surprised by an incident that this working model of human behavior was erroneous.

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Amygdala

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A tiny brain structure that registers emotions, particularly fear and anxiety.

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Animism

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The belief that natural objects and phenomena are alive.

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Balanced bilingual

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A person who is fluent in two languages, not favoring one over the other.

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Centration

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A characteristic of preoperational thought whereby a young child focuses (centers) on one idea, excluding all others.

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Conservation

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The principle that the amount of a substance remains the same (i.e., is conserved) even when its appearance changes.

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Corpus Callosum

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A long, thick band of nerve fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain and allows communication between them.

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Egocentrism

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Piaget's term for young children's tendency to think about the world entirely from their own personal perspective.

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Fast-mapping

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The speedy and sometimes imprecise way in which children learn new words by tentatively placing them in mental categories according to their perceived meaning.

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Focus on appearance

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A characteristic of preoperational thought whereby a young child ignores all attributes that are not apparent.

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Head start

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The most widespread early-childhood-education program in the United States, begun in 1965 and funded by the federal government.

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Hippocampus

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A brain structure that is a central processor of memory, especially memory for locations.

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Hypothalamus

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A brain area that responds to the amygdala and the hippocampus to produce hormones that activate other parts of the brain and body.

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Injury control/harm reduction

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Practices that are aimed at anticipating, controlling, and preventing dangerous activities; these practices reflect the beliefs that accidents are not random and that injuries can be made less harmful if proper controls are in place.

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Irreversibility

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A characteristic of preoperational thought whereby a young child thinks that nothing can be undone. A thing cannot be restored to the way it was before a change occurred.

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Just right

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The tendency of children to insist on having things done in a particular way. This can include clothes, food, bedtime routines, and so on.

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Lateralization

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Literally, "sidedness," referring to the specialization in certain functions by each side of the brain, with one side dominant for each activity. The left side of the brain controls the right side of the body, and vice versa.

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Limbic system

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The major brain region crucial to the development of emotional expression and regulation; its three main areas are the amygdala, the hippocampus, and the hypothalamus, although recent research has found that many other areas of the brain are involved with emotions.

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Montessori school

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Schools that offer early-childhood education based on the philosophy of Maria Montessori (an Italian educator more than a century ago); it emphasizes careful work and tasks that each young child can do.

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Myelination

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The process by which axons become coated with myelin, a fatty substance that speeds the transmission of nerve impulses from neuron to neuron.

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Overimitation

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The tendency of children to copy an action that is not a relevant part of the behavior to be learned; common among 2- to 6-year-olds when they imitate adult actions that are irrelevant and inefficient.

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Overregulation

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The application of rules of grammar even when exceptions occur, making the language seem more "regular" than it actually is.

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Preserevation

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The tendency to persevere in, or stick to, one thought or action for a long time.

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Prefontal cortex

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The area of the cortex at the very front of the brain that specializes in anticipation, planning, and impulse control.

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Preoperational intelligence

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Piaget's term for cognitive development between the ages of about 2 and 6; it includes language and imagination (which involve symbolic thought), but logical, operational thinking is not yet possible.

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Primary prevention

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Actions that change overall background conditions to prevent some unwanted event or circumstance, such as injury, disease, or abuse.

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Reggio Emilia

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A famous program of early-childhood education that originated in the town of Reggio Emilia, Italy; it encourages each child's creativity in a carefully designed setting.

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Scaffolding

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Temporary support that is tailored to a learner's needs and abilities and aimed at helping the learner master the next task in a given learning process.

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Secondary prevention

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Actions that avert harm in a high-risk situation, such as stopping a car before it hits a pedestrian or installing traffic lights at dangerous intersections.

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Static reasoning

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A characteristic of preoperational thought whereby a young child thinks that nothing changes. Whatever is now has always been and always will be.

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Symbolic thought

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The concept that an object or word can stand for something else, including something pretend or something not seen. Once symbolic thought is possible, language becomes much more useful.

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Tertiary prevention

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Actions, such as immediate and effective medical treatment, that are taken after an adverse event (such as illness, injury, or abuse) occurs and that are aimed at reducing the harm or preventing disability.

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Theory of mind

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A person's theory of what other people might be thinking. In order to have a theory of mind, children must realize that other people are not necessarily thinking the same thoughts that they themselves are. That realization is seldom achieved before age 4.

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Theory-theory

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The idea that children attempt to explain everything they see and hear.

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Zone of proximal development

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Vygotsky's term for the skills—cognitive as well as physical—that a person can exercise only with assistance, not yet independently.

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Antipathy

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Feelings of dislike or even hatred for another person.

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Antisocial behavior

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Actions that are deliberately hurtful or destructive to another person.

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Authoritarian parenting

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An approach to child rearing that is characterized by high behavioral standards, strict punishment of misconduct, and little communication.

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Authoritative parenting

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An approach to child rearing in which the parents set limits and enforce rules but are flexible and listen to their children.

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Bullying aggression

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Unprovoked, repeated physical or verbal attack, especially on victims who are unlikely to defend themselves.

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Child abuse

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Deliberate action that is harmful to a child's physical, emotional, or sexual well-being.

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Child maltreatment

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Intentional harm to or avoidable endangerment of anyone under 18 years of age.

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Child neglect

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Failure to meet a child's basic physical, educational, or emotional needs.

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Electra complex

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The unconscious desire of girls to replace their mothers and win their fathers' exclusive love.

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Emotional regulation

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The ability to control when and how emotions are expressed.

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Empathy

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The ability to understand the emotions and concerns of another person, especially when they differ from one's own.

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Externalizing problems

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Difficulty with emotional regulation that involves expressing powerful feelings through uncontrolled physical or verbal outbursts, as by lashing out at other people or breaking things.

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Extrinsic motivation

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A drive, or reason to pursue a goal, that arises from the need to have one's achievements rewarded from outside, perhaps by receiving material possessions or another person's esteem.

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Gender differences

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Differences in the roles and behaviors that are prescribed by a culture for males and females.

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Gender schema

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A child's cognitive concept or general belief about sex differences, which is based on his or her observations and experiences.

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Identification

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An attempt to defend one's self-concept by taking on the behaviors and attitudes of someone else.

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Imaginary friends

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Make-believe friends who exist only in a child's imagination; increasingly common from ages 3 through 7, they combat loneliness and aid emotional regulation.

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Initiative versus guilt

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Erikson's third psychosocial crisis, in which children undertake new skills and activities and feel guilty when they do not succeed at them.

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Instrumental aggression

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Hurtful behavior that is intended to get something that another person has and to keep it.

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Internalizing problems

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Difficulty with emotional regulation that involves turning one's emotional distress inward, as by feeling excessively guilty, ashamed, or worthless.

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Instrinic motivation

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A drive, or reason to pursue a goal, that comes from inside a person, such as the need to feel smart or competent.

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Kinship care

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A form of foster care in which a relative of a maltreated child, usually a grandparent, becomes the approved caregiver.

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Neglectful/uninvolved parenting

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An approach to child rearing in which the parents are indifferent toward their children and unaware of what is going on in their children's lives.

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Oedipus complex

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The unconscious desire of young boys to replace their fathers and win their mothers' exclusive love.

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Permanency planning

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An effort by child-welfare authorities to find a long-term living situation that will provide stability and support for a maltreated child. A goal is to avoid repeated changes of caregiver or school, which can be particularly harmful to the child.

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Permissive parenting

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An approach to child rearing that is characterized by high nurturance and communication but little discipline, guidance, or control.

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Phallic stage

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Freud's third stage of development, when the penis becomes the focus of concern and pleasure.

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Prosocial behavior

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Actions that are helpful and kind but that are of no obvious benefit to the person doing them.

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Psychological control

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A disciplinary technique that involves threatening to withdraw love and support and that relies on a child's feelings of guilt and gratitude to the parents.

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Psychopathology

answer

An illness or disorder of the mind.

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Reactive aggression

answer

An impulsive retaliation for another person's intentional or accidental action, verbal or physical.

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Relational aggression

answer

Nonphysical acts, such as insults or social rejection, aimed at harming the social connection between the victim and other people.

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Reported malnutrition

answer

Harm or endangerment about which someone has notified the authorities.

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Rough-and-tumble

answer

Play that mimics aggression through wrestling, chasing, or hitting, but in which there is no intent to harm.

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Self concept

answer

A person's understanding of who he or she is, incorporating self-esteem, physical appearance, personality, and various personal traits, such as gender and size.

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Sex difference

answer

Biological differences between males and females, in organs, hormones, and body shape.

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Sociodramatic play

answer

Pretend play in which children act out various roles and themes in stories that they create.

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Substantiated maltreatment

answer

Harm or endangerment that has been reported, investigated, and verified.

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Superego

answer

In psychoanalytic theory, the judgmental part of the personality that internalizes the moral standards of the parents.

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Time-out

answer

A disciplinary technique in which a child is separated from other people and activities for a specified time.

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Achievement test

answer

A measure of mastery or proficiency in reading, mathematics, writing, science, or some other subject.

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Aptitude

answer

The potential to master a specific skill or to learn a certain body of knowledge.

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Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

answer

A condition in which a person not only has great difficulty concentrating for more than a few moments but also is inattentive, impulsive, and overactive.

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Autism spectrum disorder

answer

A developmental disorder marked by difficulty with social communication and interaction— including difficulty seeing things from another person's point of view—and restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, or activities.

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Bilingual schooling

answer

A strategy in which school subjects are taught in both the learner's original language and the second (majority) language.

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Bipolar disorder

answer

A condition characterized by extreme mood swings, from euphoria to deep depression, not caused by outside experiences.

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Body mass index (BMI)

answer

A person's weight in kilograms divided by the square of height in meters.

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Charter school

answer

A public school with its own set of standards that is funded and licensed by the state or local district in which it is located.

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Childhood obesity

answer

In a child, having a BMI above the 95th percentile, according to the U.S. Centers for Disease Control's 1980 standards for children of a given age.

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Childhood overweight

answer

In a child, having a BMI above the 85th percentile, according to the U.S. Centers for Disease Control's 1980 standards for children of a given age.

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Classification

answer

The logical principle that things can be organized into groups (or categories or classes) according to some characteristic they have in common.

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Comorbid

answer

Refers to the presence of two or more disease conditions at the same time in the same person.

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Concrete operational thought

answer

Piaget's term for the ability to reason logically about direct experiences and perceptions.

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Control processes

answer

The part of the information-processing system that regulates the analysis and flow of information. Memory and retrieval strategies, selective attention, and rules or strategies for problem solving are all useful control processes.

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Dyscalculia

answer

Unusual difficulty with math, probably originating from a distinct part of the brain.

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Dyslexia

answer

Unusual difficulty with reading; thought to be the result of some neurological underdevelopment.

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Equifinality

answer

A basic principle of developmental psychopathology that holds that one symptom can have many causes.

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ESL (English as a second language)

answer

An approach to teaching English in which all children who do not speak English are placed together in an intensive course to learn basic English so that they can be educated in the same classroom as native English speakers.

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Flynn effect

answer

The rise in average IQ scores that has occurred over the decades in many nations.

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Hidden curriculum

answer

The unofficial, unstated, or implicit rules and priorities that influence the academic curriculum and every other aspect of learning in a school.

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Home schooling

answer

Education in which children are taught at home, usually by their parents, instead of attending any school, public or private.

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Immersion

answer

A strategy in which instruction in all school subjects occurs in the second (usually the majority) language that a child is learning.

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Individual education plan (IEP)

answer

A document that specifies educational goals and plans for a child with special needs.

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IQ (intelligence quotient) test

answer

A test designed to measure intellectual aptitude, or ability to learn in school. Originally, intelligence was defined as mental age divided by chronological age, times 100—hence the term intelligence quotient, or IQ.

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Knowledge base

answer

A body of knowledge in a particular area that makes it easier to master new information in that area.

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Least restrictive environment (LRE)

answer

A legal requirement that children with special needs be assigned to the most general educational context in which they can be expected to learn.

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Long-term memory

answer

The component of the information-processing system in which virtually limitless amounts of information can be stored indefinitely.

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Metacognition

answer

"Thinking about thinking," or the ability to evaluate a cognitive task in order to determine how best to accomplish it, and then to monitor and adjust one's performance on that task.

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Middle childhood

answer

The period between early childhood and early adolescence, approximately from ages 6 to 11.

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Multifinality

answer

A basic principle of developmental psychopathology that holds that one cause can have many (multiple) final manifestations.

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Multiple intelligences

answer

The idea that human intelligence is comprised of a varied set of abilities rather than a single, all encompassing one.

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National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP)

answer

An ongoing and nationally representative measure of U.S. children's achievement in reading, mathematics, and other subjects over time; nicknamed "the Nation's Report Card."

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No Child Left Behind Act

answer

A U.S. law enacted in 2001 that was intended to increase accountability in education by requiring states to qualify for federal educational funding by administering standardized tests to measure school achievement.

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Parochial school

answer

Non-public schools organized by a religious group, often Roman Catholic but sometimes Jewish, Muslim, and so on. The curriculum, discipline, and many instructors in parochial schools reflect the beliefs of the religious body, which often provides substantial financial support.

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Pragmatics

answer

The practical use of language that includes the ability to adjust language communication according to audience and context.

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Private school

answer

A school funded by parents and sponsoring institutions. Such schools have control over admissions, hiring, and specifics of curriculum, although some regulations apply.

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Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS)

answer

Inaugurated in 2001, a planned five-year cycle of international trend studies in the reading ability of fourth-graders.

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Reaction time

answer

The time it takes to respond to a stimulus, either physically (with a reflexive movement such as an eyeblink) or cognitively (with a thought).

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Response to intervention (RTI)

answer

An educational strategy that uses early intervention to help children who demonstrate below-average achievement. Only children who are not helped are designated for more intense measures.

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Selective attention

answer

The ability to concentrate on some stimuli while ignoring others.

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Sensory memory

answer

The component of the information-processing system in which incoming stimulus information is stored for a split second to allow it to be processed. (Also called the sensory register.)

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Trends in Math and Science Study (TIMSS)

answer

An international assessment of the math and science skills of fourthand eighth-graders. Although the TIMSS is very useful, different countries' scores are not always comparable because sample selection, test administration, and content validity are hard to keep uniform.

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Voucher

answer

A monetary commitment by the government to pay for the education of a child. Vouchers vary a great deal from place to place, not only in amount and availability, but in restrictions as to who gets them and what schools accept them. Typically, the voucher goes to whatever school the child attends.

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Working memory

answer

The component of the information-processing system in which current conscious mental activity occurs. (Formerly called short-term memory.)

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Aggressive-rejected

answer

Rejected by peers because of antagonistic, confrontational behavior.

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Bullying

answer

Repeated, systematic efforts to inflict harm through physical, verbal, or social attack on a weaker person.

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Bully-victim

answer

Someone who attacks others and who is attacked as well. (Also called provocative victims because they do things that elicit bullying.)

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Child culture

answer

The particular habits, styles, and values that reflect the set of rules and rituals that characterize children as distinct from adult society.

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Conventional moral reasoning

answer

Kohlberg's second level of moral reasoning, emphasizing social rules.

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Extended family

answer

A family of three or more generations living in one household.

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Family function

answer

The way a family works to meet the needs of its members. Children need families to provide basic material necessities, to encourage learning, to help them develop self-respect, to nurture friendships, and to foster harmony and stability.

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Family structure

answer

The legal and genetic relationships among relatives living in the same home; includes nuclear family, extended family, stepfamily, and so on.

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Industry versus inferiority

answer

The fourth of Erikson's eight psychosocial crises, during which children attempt to master many skills, developing a sense of themselves as either industrious or inferior, competent or incompetent.

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Latency

answer

Freud's term for middle childhood, during which children's emotional drives and psychosexual needs are quiet (latent). Freud thought that sexual conflicts from earlier stages are only temporarily submerged, bursting forth again at puberty.

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Nuclear family

answer

A family that consists of a father, a mother, and their biological children under age 18.

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Polygamous family

answer

A family consisting of one man, several wives, and their children.

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Postconventional moral reasoning

answer

Kohlberg's third level of moral reasoning, emphasizing moral principles.

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Preconventional moral reasoning

answer

Kohlberg's first level of moral reasoning, emphasizing rewards and punishments.

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Resilience

answer

The capacity to adapt well to significant adversity and to overcome serious stress.

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Single-parent family

answer

A family that consists of only one parent and his or her biological children under age 18.

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Social comparison

answer

The tendency to assess one's abilities, achievements, social status, and other attributes by measuring them against those of other people, especially one's peers.

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Withdrawn-rejected

answer

Rejected by peers because of timid, withdrawn, and anxious behavior.

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Adolescent egocentrism

answer

A characteristic of adolescent thinking that leads young people (ages 10 to 13) to focus on themselves to the exclusion of others.

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Adrenal glands

answer

Two glands, located above the kidneys, that produce hormones (including the "stress hormones" epinephrine [adrenaline] and norepinephrine).

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Analytic thought

answer

Thought that results from analysis, such as a systematic ranking of pros and cons, risks and consequences, possibilities and facts. Analytic thought depends on logic and rationality.

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Anorexia nervosa

answer

An eating disorder characterized by severe calorie restriction and the fear of being fat. Affected individuals undereat, or overeat and then overexercise or purge, depriving their vital organs of nutrition. Anorexia can be fatal.

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Body image

answer

A person's idea of how his or her body looks.

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Bulimia nervosa

answer

An eating disorder characterized by binge eating and subsequent purging, usually by induced vomiting and/or use of laxatives.

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Circadian rhythm

answer

A day-night cycle of biological activity that occurs approximately every 24 hours (circadian means "about a day").

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Cyberbullying

answer

Bullying that occurs when one person spreads insults or rumors about another by means of technology (e.g., e-mails, text messages, or cell phone videos).

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Deductive reasoning

answer

Reasoning from a general statement, premise, or principle, through logical steps, to figure out (deduce) specifics. (Also called top-down reasoning.)

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Dual-process model

answer

The notion that two networks exist within the human brain, one for emotional and one for analytical processing of stimuli.

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Entity approach to intelligence

answer

An approach to understanding intelligence that sees ability as innate, a fixed quantity present at birth; those who hold this view do not believe that effort enhances achievement.

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Estradiol

answer

A sex hormone, considered the chief estrogen. Females produce much more estradiol than males do.

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Formal operational thought

answer

In Piaget's theory, the fourth and final stage of cognitive development, characterized by more systematic logical thinking and by the ability to understand and systematically manipulate abstract concepts.

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Growth spurt

answer

The relatively sudden and rapid physical growth that occurs during puberty. Each body part increases in size on a schedule: Weight usually precedes height, and growth of the limbs precedes growth of the torso.

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High-stakes test

answer

An evaluation that is critical in determining success or failure. If a single test determines whether a student will graduate or be promoted, it is a high-stakes test.

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Hormone

answer

An organic chemical substance that is produced by one body tissue and conveyed via the bloodstream to another to affect some physiological function.

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HPA (hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal) axis

answer

A sequence of hormone production that originates in the hypothalamus, moves to the pituitary, and then to the adrenal glands.

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HPG (hypothalamus-pituitary-gonad) axis

answer

A sequence of hormone production that originates in the hypothalamus, moves to the pituitary, and then to the gonads.

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Hypothetical thought

answer

Reasoning that includes propositions and possibilities that may not reflect reality.

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Imaginary audience

answer

The other people who, in an adolescent's egocentric belief, are watching and taking note of his or her appearance, ideas, and behavior. This belief makes many teenagers very self-conscious.

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Incremental approach to intelligence

answer

An approach to understanding intelligence that holds that intelligence can be directly increased by effort; those who subscribe to this view believe they can master whatever they seek to learn if they pay attention, participate in class, study, complete their homework, and so on.

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Inductive reasoning

answer

Reasoning from one or more specific experiences or facts to reach (induce) a general conclusion. (Also called bottom-up reasoning.)

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Intuitive thought

answer

Thought that arises from an emotion or a hunch, beyond rational explanation, and is influenced by past experiences and cultural assumptions.

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Invincibility fable

answer

An adolescent's egocentric conviction that he or she cannot be overcome or even harmed by anything that might defeat a normal mortal, such as unprotected sex, drug abuse, or high-speed driving.

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Leptin

answer

A hormone that affects appetite and is believed to affect the onset of puberty. Leptin levels increase during childhood and peak at around age 12.

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Menarche

answer

A girl's first menstrual period, signaling that she has begun ovulation. Pregnancy is biologically possible, but ovulation and menstruation are often irregular for years after menarche.

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Middle school

answer

A school for children in the grades between elementary and high school. Middle school usually begins with grade 6 and ends with grade 8.

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Personal fable

answer

An aspect of adolescent egocentrism characterized by an adolescent's belief that his or her thoughts, feelings, and experiences are unique, more wonderful or awful than anyone else's.

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PISA (Programme for International Student Assessment)

answer

An international test taken by 15-year-olds in 50 nations that is designed to measure problem solving and cognition in daily life.

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Pituitary

answer

A gland in the brain that responds to a signal from the hypothalamus by producing many hormones, including those that regulate growth and that control other glands, among them the adrenal and sex glands.

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Primary sex characteristics

answer

The parts of the body that are directly involved in reproduction, including the vagina, uterus, ovaries, testicles, and penis.

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Puberty

answer

The time between the first onrush of hormones and full adult physical development. Puberty usually lasts three to five years. Many more years are required to achieve psychosocial maturity.

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Secondary education

answer

Literally, the period after primary education (elementary or grade school) and before tertiary education (college). It usually occurs from about age 12 to 18, although there is some variation by school and by nation.

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Secondary sex characteristics

answer

Physical traits that are not directly involved in reproduction but that indicate sexual maturity, such as a man's beard and a woman's breasts.

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Spermarche

answer

A boy's first ejaculation of sperm. Erections can occur as early as infancy, but ejaculation signals sperm production. Spermarche may occur during sleep (in a "wet dream") or via direct stimulation.

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Testosterone

answer

A sex hormone, the best known of the androgens (male hormones); secreted in far greater amounts by males than by females.

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Adolescence-limited offender

answer

A person whose criminal activity stops by age 21.

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Bickering

answer

Petty, peevish arguing, usually repeated and ongoing.

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Child sexual abuse

answer

Any erotic activity that arouses an adult and excites, shames, or confuses a child, whether or not the victim protests and whether or not genital contact is involved.

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Clinical depression

answer

Feelings of hopelessness, lethargy, and worthlessness that last two weeks or more.

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Clique

answer

A group of adolescents made up of close friends who are loyal to one another while excluding outsiders.

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Cluster suicides

answer

Several suicides committed by members of a group within a brief period.

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Crowd

answer

A larger group of adolescents who have something in common but who are not necessarily friends.

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Deviancy training

answer

Destructive peer support in which one person shows another how to rebel against authority or social norms.

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Familism

answer

The belief that family members should support one another, sacrificing individual freedom and success, if necessary, in order to preserve family unity and protect the family from outside forces.

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Foreclosure

answer

Erikson's term for premature identity formation, which occurs when an adolescent adopts his or her parents' or society's roles and values wholesale, without questioning or analysis.

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Gender identity

answer

A person's acceptance of the roles and behaviors that society associates with the biological categories of male and female.

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Generational forgetting

answer

The idea that each new generation forgets what the previous generation learned. As used here, the term refers to knowledge about the harm drugs can do.

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Identity achievement

answer

Erikson's term for the attainment of identity, or the point at which a person understands who he or she is as a unique individual, in accord with past experiences and future plans.

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Identity versus role confusion

answer

Erikson's term for the fifth stage of development, in which the person tries to figure out "Who am I?" but is confused as to which of many possible roles to adopt.

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Life-course-persistent offender

answer

A person whose criminal activity typically begins in early adolescence and continues throughout life; a career criminal.

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Moratorium

answer

An adolescent's choice of a socially acceptable way to postpone making identity-achievement decisions. Going to college is a common example.

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Parasuicide

answer

Any potentially lethal action against the self that does not result in death. (Also called attempted suicide or failed suicide.)

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Parental monitoring

answer

Parents' ongoing awareness of what their children are doing, where, and with whom.

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Peer pressure

answer

Encouragement to conform to one's friends or contemporaries in behavior, dress, and attitude; usually considered a negative force, as when adolescent peers encourage one another to defy adult authority.

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Role confusion

answer

A situation in which an adolescent does not seem to know or care what his or her identity is. (Sometimes called identity or role diffusion.)

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Rumination

answer

Repeatedly thinking and talking about past experiences; can contribute to depression.

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Sexual orientation

answer

A term that refers to whether a person is sexually and romantically attracted to others of the same sex, the opposite sex, or both sexes.

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Sexually transmitted infection (STI)

answer

An infection spread by sexual contact; includes syphilis, gonorrhea, genital herpes, chlamydia, and HIV.

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Suicidal ideation

answer

Thinking about suicide, usually with some serious emotional and intellectual or cognitive overtones.

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Choice overload

answer

Having so many options that a thoughtful choice becomes difficult, and regret after making a choice is more likely.

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Cohabitation

answer

An arrangement in which a couple live together in a committed romantic relationship but are not formally married.

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Drug abuse

answer

The ingestion of a drug to the extent that it impairs the user's biological or psychological well-being.

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Emerging adulthood

answer

The period of life between the ages of 18 and 25. Emerging adulthood is now widely thought of as a separate developmental stage.

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Extreme sports

answer

Forms of recreation that include apparent risk of injury or death and are attractive and thrilling as a result.

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Intimacy versus isolation

answer

The sixth of Erikson's eight stages of development. Adults seek someone with whom to share their lives in an enduring and self-sacrificing commitment. Without such commitment, they risk profound loneliness and isolation.

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Linked lives

answer

Lives in which the success, health, and well-being of each family member are connected to those of other members, including members of another generation, as in the relationship between parents and children.

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Massification

answer

The idea that establishing higher learning institutions and encouraging college enrollment could benefit everyone (the masses), leading to marked increases in the number of emerging adults in college.

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Postformal thought

answer

A proposed adult stage of cognitive development, following Piaget's four stages. Postformal thought goes beyond adolescent thinking by being more practical, more flexible, and more dialectical (i.e., more capable of combining contradictory elements into a comprehensive whole).

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Stereotype threat

answer

The possibility that one's appearance or behavior will be misread to confirm another person's oversimplified, prejudiced attitudes.

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Allostasis

answer

A dynamic body adjustment, related to homeostasis, that over time affects overall physiology. The main difference is that while homeostasis requires an immediate response, allostasis requires longer-term adjustment.

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Analytic intelligence

answer

A form of intelligence that involves such mental processes as abstract planning, strategy selection, focused attention, and information processing, as well as verbal and logical skills.

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Andropause

answer

A term coined to signify a drop in testosterone levels in older men, which normally results in reduced sexual desire, erections, and muscle mass. (Also called male menopause.)

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Automatic processing

answer

Thinking that occurs without deliberate, conscious thought. Experts process most tasks automatically, saving conscious thought for unfamiliar challenges.

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Creative intelligence

answer

A form of intelligence that involves the capacity to be intellectually flexible and innovative.

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Crystallized intelligence

answer

Those types of intellectual ability that reflect accumulated learning. Vocabulary and general information are examples. Some developmental psychologists think crystallized intelligence increases with age, while fluid intelligence declines.

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Emotion-focused coping

answer

A strategy to deal with stress by changing feelings about the stressor rather than changing the stressor itself.

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Expert

answer

One who is notably more accomplished, proficient, and/or knowledgeable in a particular skill, topic, or task than the average person.

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Expertise

answer

A person's ability to be more accomplished at a particular skill, or to have better knowledge of a particular subject, than the average person.

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Fluid intelligence

answer

Those types of basic intelligence that make learning of all sorts quick and thorough. Abilities such as short-term memory, abstract thought, and speed of thinking are all usually considered part of fluid intelligence

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Flynn effect

answer

The rise in average IQ scores that has occurred over the decades in many nations.

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General intelligence

answer

The idea of g assumes that intelligence is one basic trait, underlying all cognitive abilities. According to this concept, people have varying levels of this general ability.

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Homeostasis

answer

The adjustment of all the body's systems to keep physiological functions in a state of equilibrium, moment by moment. As the body ages, it takes longer for these homeostatic adjustments to occur, so it becomes harder for older bodies to adapt to stress.

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Hormone replacement therapy (HRT)

answer

Taking hormones (in pills, patches, or injections) to compensate for hormone reduction. HRT is most common in women at menopause or after removal of the ovaries, but it is also used by men to help restore their decreased testosterone level. HRT has some medical uses but also carries health risks.

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Invitro fertilization (IVF)

answer

A technique in which ova (egg cells) are surgically removed from a woman and fertilized with sperm in a laboratory. After the original fertilized cells (the zygotes) have divided several times, they are inserted into the woman's uterus.

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Infertility

answer

The inability to conceive a child after trying for at least a year.

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Menopause

answer

The time in middle age, usually around age 50, when a woman's menstrual periods cease and the production of estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone drops. Strictly speaking, menopause is dated one year after a woman's last menstrual period, although many months before and after that date are considered part of the period of menopause.

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Organ reserve

answer

The extra capacity built into each organ, such as the heart and lungs, that allows a person to cope with extraordinary demands or to withstand organ strain.

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Practical intelligence

answer

The intellectual skills used in everyday problem solving. (Sometimes called tacit intelligence.)

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Problem-focused coping

answer

A strategy to deal with stress by tackling a stressful situation directly.

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Seattle Longitudinal Study

answer

The first cross-sequential study of adult intelligence. This study began in 1956; the most recent testing was conducted in 2005.

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Selective optimization with compensation

answer

The theory, developed by Paul and Margret Baltes, that people try to maintain a balance in their lives by looking for the best way to compensate for physical and cognitive losses and to become more proficient in activities they can already do well.

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Senescence

answer

A gradual physical decline related to aging. Senescence occurs in everyone and in every body part, but the rate of decline is highly variable within and between persons.

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Stressor

answer

Any situation, event, experience, or other stimulus that causes a person to feel stressed. Many circumstances become stressors for some people but not for others.

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Big Five

answer

The five basic clusters of personality traits that remain quite stable through out adulthood: openness, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism.

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Consequential strangers

answer

People who are not in a person's closest friendship circle but nonetheless have an impact.

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Ecological niche

answer

The particular lifestyle and social context that adults settle into because it is compatible with their individual personality needs and interests.

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Empty nest

answer

The time in the lives of parents when their children have left the family home to pursue their own lives.

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Extrinsic rewards of work

answer

The tangible benefits, usually in the form of compensation (e.g., salary, health insurance, pension), that one receives for doing a job.

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Fictive kin

answer

Someone who becomes accepted as part of a family to which he or she has no blood relation.

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Flextime

answer

An arrangement in which work schedules are flexible so that employees can balance personal and occupational responsibilities.

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Generativity versus stagnation

answer

The seventh of Erikson's eight stages of development. Adults seek to be productive in a caring way, perhaps through art, caregiving, and employment.

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Intimacy versus isolation

answer

The sixth of Erikson's eight stages of development. Adults seek someone with whom to share their lives in an enduring and self-sacrificing commitment. Without such commitment, they risk profound loneliness and isolation.

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Intrinsic rewards of work

answer

The intangible gratifications (e.g., job satisfaction, self-esteem, pride) that come from within oneself as a result of doing a job.

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Kinkeeper

answer

A caregiver who takes responsibility for maintaining communication among family members.

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Midlife crisis

answer

A supposed period of unusual anxiety, radical self-reexamination, and sudden transformation that was once widely associated with middle age but that actually had more to do with developmental history than with chronological age.

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Sandwich generation

answer

The generation of middle-aged people who are supposedly "squeezed" by the needs of the younger and older members of their families. In reality, some adults do feel pressured by these obligations, but most are not burdened by them, either because they enjoy fulfilling them or because they choose to take on only some of them or none of them.

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Social convoy

answer

Collectively, the family members, friends, acquaintances, and even strangers who move through life with an individual.

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Telecommuting

answer

Working at home and keeping in touch with the office via computer, telephone, and scanner.

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Ageism

answer

A prejudice whereby people are categorized and judged solely on the basis of their chronological age.

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Alzheimer disease (AD)

answer

The most common cause of dementia, characterized by gradual deterioration of memory and personality and marked by the formation of plaques of beta-amyloid protein and tangles of tau in the brain. (Sometimes called senile dementia of the Alzheimer type.)

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Average life expectancy

answer

The number of years the average newborn in a particular population group is likely to live.

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Calorie restriction

answer

The practice of limiting dietary energy intake (while consuming sufficient quantities of vitamins, minerals, and other important nutrients) for the purpose of improving health and slowing down the aging process.

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Cellular aging

answer

The ways in which molecules and cells are affected by age. Many theories aim to explain how and why aging causes cells to deteriorate.

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Compression of morbidity

answer

A shortening of the time a person spends ill or infirm, accomplished by postponing illness.

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Control processes

answer

The part of the information-processing system that regulates the analysis and flow of information. Memory and retrieval strategies, selective attention, and rules or strategies for problem solving are all useful control processes.

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Delirium

answer

A temporary loss of memory, often accompanied by hallucinations, terror, grandiosity, and irrational behavior.

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Dementia

answer

Irreversible loss of intellectual functioning caused by organic brain damage or disease. Dementia becomes more common with age, but it is abnormal and pathological even in the very old.

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Demographic shift

answer

A shift in the proportions of the populations of various ages.

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Dependency ratio

answer

A calculation of the number of self-sufficient, productive adults compared with the number of dependents (children and the elderly) in a given population.

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Ecological validity

answer

The idea that cognition should be measured in settings that are as realistic as possible and that the abilities measured should be those needed in real life.

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Elderspeak

answer

A condescending way of speaking to older adults that resembles baby talk, with simple and short sentences, exaggerated emphasis, repetition, and a slower rate and a higher pitch than used in normal speech.

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Frontal lobe dementia

answer

Deterioration of the amygdala and frontal lobes that may be the cause of 15 percent of all dementias. (Also called frontotemporal lobar degeneration.)

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Genetic clock

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A purported mechanism in the DNA of cells that regulates the aging process by triggering hormonal changes and controlling cellular reproduction and repair.

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Hayflick limit

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The number of times a human cell is capable of dividing into two new cells. The limit for most human cells is approximately 50 divisions, an indication that the life span is limited by our genetic program.

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Lewy body dementia

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A form of dementia characterized by an increase in Lewy body cells in the brain. Symptoms include visual hallucinations, momentary loss of attention, falling, and fainting.

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Life review

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An examination of one's own role in the history of human life, engaged in by many elderly people.

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Maximum life span

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The oldest possible age that members of a species can live under ideal circumstances. For humans, that age is approximately 122 years.

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Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE)

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A test that is used to measure cognitive ability, especially in late adulthood.

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Old-old

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Older adults (generally, those older than 75) who suffer from physical, mental, or social deficits.

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Oldest-old

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Elderly adults (generally, those older than 85) who are dependent on others for almost everything, requiring supportive services such as nursing homes and hospital stays.

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Osteoporosis

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Fragile bones that result from primary aging, which makes bones more porous, especially if a person is at genetic risk.

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Parkinson disease

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A chronic, progressive disease that is characterized by muscle tremor and rigidity and sometimes dementia; caused by reduced dopamine production in the brain.

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Polypharmacy

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Refers to a situation in which elderly people are prescribed several medications. The various side effects and interactions of those medications can result in dementia symptoms.

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Primary aging

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The universal and irreversible physical changes that occur in all living creatures as they grow older.

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Secondary aging

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The specific physical illnesses or conditions that become more common with aging but are caused by health habits, genes, and other influences that vary from person to person.

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Self-actualization

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The final stage in Maslow's hierarchy of needs, characterized by aesthetic, creative, philosophical, and spiritual understanding.

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Vascular dementia (VaD)

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A form of dementia characterized by sporadic, and progressive, loss of intellectual functioning caused by repeated infarcts, or temporary obstructions of blood vessels, which prevent sufficient blood from reaching the brain. (Also called multi-infarct dementia.)

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Wear and tear

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A view of aging as a process by which the human body wears out because of the passage of time and exposure to environmental stressors.

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Young-old

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Healthy, vigorous, financially secure older adults (generally, those aged 60 to 75) who are well integrated into the lives of their families and communities.

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AARP

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A U.S. organization of people 50 and older that advocates for the elderly. It was originally called the American Association of Retired Persons, but now only the initials AARP are used, since members need not be retired.

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Activities of daily life (ADLs)

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Typically identified as five tasks of self-care that are important to independent living: eating, bathing, toileting, dressing, and transferring from a bed to a chair. The inability to perform any of these tasks is a sign of frailty.

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Activity theory

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The view that elderly people want and need to remain active in a variety of social spheres—with relatives, friends, and community groups—and become withdrawn only unwillingly, as a result of ageism.

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Age in place

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Remaining in the same home and community in later life, adjusting but not leaving when health fades.

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Assisted living

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A living arrangement for elderly people that combines privacy and independence with medical supervision.

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Compulsive hoarding

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The urge to accumulate and hold on to familiar objects and possessions, sometimes to the point of their becoming health and/or safety hazards. This impulse tends to increase with age.

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Disengagement theory

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The view that aging makes a person's social sphere increasingly narrow, resulting in role relinquishment, withdrawal, and passivity.

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Filial responsibility

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The obligation of adult children to care for their aging parents.

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Frail elderly

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People older than 65, and often older than 85, who are physically infirm, very ill, or cognitively disabled.

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Instrumental activities of daily life (IADLs)

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Actions (e.g., budgeting and preparing food) that are important to independent living and that require some intellectual competence and forethought. The ability to perform these tasks may be even more critical to self-sufficiency than ADL ability.

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Integrity versus despair

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The final stage of Erik Erikson's developmental sequence, in which older adults seek to integrate their unique experiences with their vision of community.

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Naturally occurring retirement community (NORC)

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A neighborhood or apartment complex whose population is mostly retired people who moved to the location as younger adults and never left.

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Positivity effect

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The tendency for elderly people to perceive, prefer, and remember positive images and experiences more than negative ones.

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Self theories

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Theories of late adulthood that emphasize the core self, or the search to maintain one's integrity and identity.

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Stratification theories

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Theories that emphasize that social forces, particularly those related to a person's social stratum or social category, limit individual choices and affect a person's ability to function in late adulthood because past stratification continues to limit life in various ways.

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Universal design

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Designing physical space and common tools that are suitable for people of all ages and all levels of ability.

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Absent grief

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A situation in which mourners do not grieve, either because other people do not allow grief to be expressed or because the mourners do not allow themselves to feel sadness.

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Active euthanasia

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A situation in which someone takes action to bring about another person's death, with the intention of ending that person's suffering.

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Complicated grief

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A type of grief that impedes a person's future life, usually because the person clings to sorrow or is buffeted by contradictory emotions.

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Disenfranchised grief

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A situation in which certain people, although they are bereaved, are prevented from mourning publicly by cultural customs or social restrictions.

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DNR (do not resuscitate) order

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A written order from a physician (sometimes initiated by a patient's advance directive or by a health care proxy's request) that no attempt should be made to revive a patient if he or she suffers cardiac or respiratory arrest.

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Double effect

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A situation in which an action (such as administering opiates) has both a positive effect (relieving a terminally ill person's pain) and a negative effect (hastening death by suppressing respiration).

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Grief

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The deep sorrow that people feel at the death of another. Grief is personal and unpredictable.

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Health care proxy

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A person chosen by another person to make medical decisions if the second person becomes unable to do so.

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Hospice

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An institution or program in which terminally ill patients receive palliative care to reduce suffering; family and friends of the dying are helped as well.

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Incomplete grief

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A situation in which circumstances, such as a police investigation or an autopsy, interfere with the process of grieving.

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Living will

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A document that indicates what medical intervention an individual prefers if he or she is not conscious when a decision is to be expressed. For example, some do not want to be given mechanical breathing.

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Mourning

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The ceremonies and behaviors that a religion or culture prescribes for people to employ in expressing their bereavement after a death.

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Palliative care

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Care designed not to treat an illness but to provide physical and emotional comfort to the patient and support and guidance to his or her family.

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Passive euthanasia

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A situation in which a seriously ill person is allowed to die naturally, through the cessation of medical intervention.

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Physician-assisted suicide

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A form of active euthanasia in which a doctor provides the means for someone to end his or her own life.

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Slippery slope

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The argument that a given action will start a chain of events that will culminate in an undesirable outcome.

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Terror management theory (TMT)

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The idea that people adopt cultural values and moral principles in order to cope with their fear of death. This system of beliefs protects individuals from anxiety about their mortality and bolsters their self-esteem, so they react harshly when other people go against any of the moral principles involved.

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Thanatology

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The study of death and dying, especially of the social and emotional aspects.

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