question

CHAPTER 9

answer

CHAPTER 9

question

Attention

answer

In human performance, characteristics associated with consciousness, awareness, and cognitive effort as they relate to the performance of skills Of particular interest are limitations associated with these characteristics on the simultaneous performance of multiple skills and the detection of relevant information in the performance environment

question

2 Types of Attention

answer

1. Conscious (volitional) ∙Search & signal detection ∙Selected & divided attention 2. Preconscious (anticipatory) ∙Tip of the tongue experiences ∙Automatization

question

Attention Theories: Filter/Bottleneck

answer

∙Proposed that a person has difficulty doing several things at one time because the human information-processing system performs each of its functions in serial order or only one piece of information at a time ∙Somewhere along the stages of information processing, the system has a "bottleneck", where it filters out information not selected for further processing ∙Task serial order (sequential order before continuing), bottleneck, single processing (filters info)

question

Attention Theories: Limited Availability of Resources

answer

∙Proposed that information-processing functions could be carried out in parallel rather than serially, but attention limits were the result of the limited availability of resources needed to carry out those functions ∙We all have limited attention resources to do all the activities that we may attempt at one time

question

Central Resource Theories

answer

Attention capacity theories that propose one central source of attention resources for which all activities requiring attention compete

question

Kahneman's Attention Theory (Arousal-Attention Demands - 3 Rules)

answer

∙Type of central resource theory ∙Views attention as a cognitive effort → related to the mental resources needed to carry out specific activities ∙Proposed flexible attention capacity limits ∙Location of these resources is in the CNS ∙Limited amount of resources available for use at any given time ∙Available attention that a person can give to an activity is viewed as a general pool of effort Rules: 1. We allocate attention to ensure that we can complete one activity 2. We allocate attentional resources according to our enduring dispositions 3. We allocate attention in a situation according to our specific intentions (what is the goal?)

question

Arousal

answer

The general state of excitability of a person, involving physiological, emotional, and mental systems (aka anxiety, intensity)

question

Multiple-Resource Theories

answer

Theories of attention proposing that there are several attention resource mechanisms, each of which is related to a specific information-processing activity and is limited in how much information it can process simultaneously Supported by hemispheric specialization Sources of resources for processing information: 1. Input and output modalities (vision, limbs, speech system) 2. Stages of information processing (perception, memory encoding, response output) 3. Codes of processing information (verbal codes, spatial codes)

question

Dual-Task Procedure (primary task/secondary task interference)

answer

Problem: two tasks competing for resources; if tasks are similar in nature, they WILL compete for resources An experimental procedure used in the study of attention to determine the amount of attention required to perform an action, or part of an action; involves assessing the degree of interference caused by one task when a person is simultaneously performing another task

question

Attentional Focus

answer

The directing of attention to specific characteristics in a performance environment, or to action-preparation activities

question

Attentional Focus & Nideffer: broad/narrow, external/internal

answer

All individuals have a preferred attentional style; to improve performance, it's necessary to operate successfully in all styles Width ∙Broad → open skills ∙Narrow → closed skills Direction ∙External → open skills; concentrates on external environment ∙Internal → closed skills; concentrates on own technique

question

Attention Switching

answer

∙Switch the type of attention focus and the object of that attention ∙An advantage for rapid decision making ∙Can be a disadvantage if person's attention is switched too frequently between appropriate and inappropriate sources of information

question

Focusing Attention on Movements vs Movement Effects

answer

∙The directing of attention to remote effects (outcome of a movement, or movement effects) would lead to better performance than attention to the close effects (the movements) ∙Constraint action hypothesis - an internal focus "constrains" the motor system because the performer consciously attempts to control it, which results in a disruption of the automatic motor control processes that should control performance of the skill ∙Skill focused attention - directed to any aspect of the movement ∙Environmental-focused attention - directed away from the execution of the skill

question

Prinz and Action Effect Hypothesis

answer

∙The proposition that actions are best planned and controlled by their intended effects ∙When related to attention focus, proposes that the learning and performance of skills are optimized when the performer's attention is directed to the intended outcome of the action rather than on the movements themselves ∙OUTCOME rather than movement

question

Attention & Automaticity

answer

∙Automaticity - the term used to indicate that a person performs a skill, or engages in certain information-processing activities, with little or no demands on attention capacity ∙Procedural memory

question

Selective Attention (visual selective attention > eye movement)

answer

∙In the study of attention as it relates to human learning and performance, the term used to refer to the detection and selection of performance-related information in the performance environment ∙Visual selective attention - concerns the role of vision in motor skill performance in directing visual attention to environmental info (cues) that influenced the prep and/or performance of an action ∙Eye movement recordings typically underestimate what a person is visually attending to

question

Visual Search

answer

The process of directing visual attention to locate relevant information in the environment that will enable a person to determine how to prepare and perform a skill in a specific situation

question

Trainman's Feature Integration Theory (attentional spotlight, movement filter)

answer

∙Indicates that during visual search, we initially group stimuli together according to their unique features, such as color or shape ∙Attentional spotlight - the selection of features of interest that occurs when a person focuses on the master map of all features ∙Movement filter - allows visual attention to be directed at just the moving items in the person's environment ∙Feature processing is done in parallel; simultaneous processing is done on the whole display and if feature is present, we detect it ∙Conjunctive searching requires attention to the integration or combination of features - sequentially (central vision) Steps 1. Initially search according to specific features (color, shape, size) 2. Direct "attentional spotlight" on environment (wide or narrow focus)

question

Visual Search & Motor Skill Performance

answer

Visual search picks up critical cues that influence 3 parts of the action control process: 1. Action selection 2. Constraining of the selected action - determining specific movement features for performing the action 3. Timing of the action - initiation Enables a person to prepare, initiate, and execute the movements of an action that conform to the specific requirements of the performance context Visual search success is experience based

question

Visual Search Strategies in Closed Motor Skills

answer

∙Experts don't fixate for long enough just prior to the release of the ball for the shots made or missed to allow them to attain the shooting percentage of an expert ∙Visual fixation ∙"Implement/ball point" fixation ∙Ritual (automaticity) ∙Preparation ∙Execution

question

Visual Search Strategies in Open Motor Skills

answer

∙Experts gain time advantage because they fixate in fewer features of scene and spend less time at each fixation ∙Visual fixation (cue detection) ∙Foveal focusing ∙Different environmental features ∙Execution phase

question

CHAPTER 10

answer

CHAPTER 10

question

Memory Structure

answer

∙Primary memory - items that are lost and never brought back into conscious ∙Secondary memory - items that are never lost, but may be "absent from consciousness" ∙Working memory ∙Long term memory ∙Focus on 3 functions 1. Putting info in memory (storage processes) 2. Getting info out of memory (retrieval processes) 3. Specific functions in each component

question

Working Memory

answer

∙Operates to temporarily store and use recently presented information ∙Serves as a workspace to integrate recently presented info with info retrieved from LTM to carry out problem solving, decision making, and action preparation activities Subsystems 1. Phonological loop → responsible for short-term storage of verbal info 2. Visuospatial sketchpad → where visually detected spatial info is stored for short periods of time 3. Central executive → coordinates the info in working memory, including info retrieved from LTM

question

Memory (duration-capacity)

answer

Duration - the length of time info will remain in working memory (20-30 sec) Capacity - the amount of information that will reside in working memory at any one time (7 +/- 2 items); can ↑ capacity by "chunking"

question

"Chunking"

answer

Organizing info that must be remembered in a way that's meaningful to the individual

question

Long Term Memory (LTM)

answer

∙Serves as a relatively permanent storage repository for info ∙Permanent duration of info with unlimited capacity Subsystems 1. Procedural memory 2. Semantic memory 3. Episodic memory

question

Procedural Memory

answer

∙Enables us to know "how to do" something, as opposed to enabling us to know "what to do" ∙Enables us to respond adaptively to our environment by carrying out learned procedures so that we can achieve specific action goals

question

Semantic Memory

answer

∙Representing states of the world that aren't perceptually present ∙General knowledge about the world that has developed from our many experiences

question

Episodic Memory

answer

∙Our knowledge about personally experienced events, along with their temporal associations, in subjective time ∙Enables us to mentally "travel back in time"

question

Declarative (Explicit) Knowledge

answer

Knowledge about what to do in a situation; this knowledge is typically verbalized Semantic and episodic memory

question

Procedural (Implicit) Knowledge

answer

Knowledge that enables a person to know how to do a skill; this knowledge typically is difficult to verbalize or isn't verbalizable Procedural memory

question

Recall Tests

answer

Requires a person to produce a required response with few, if any, available cues or aids (ex: essays or fill-in-the-blanks tests)

question

Recognition Tests

answer

Requires a person to select a correct response from several alternative responses (ex: multiple choice tests)

question

Encoding

answer

A memory process involving the transformation of info to be remembered into a form that can be stored in memory The real secret → motivation and emotion

question

Retrieval

answer

A memory process involving the search through LTM for info needed to perform the task at hand

question

Why do we forget?

answer

1. Trace decay 2. Interference theories

question

Proactive Interference

answer

∙A cause of forgetting because of activity that occurs prior to the presentation of info to be remembered ∙Old learning interferes with new ∙A reason for forgetting movement info held in working memory ∙We can overcome this effect in LTM by actively rehearsing this info

question

Retroactive Interference

answer

∙A cause of forgetting because of activity occurring during the retention interval ∙New learning interferes with old ∙In working memory, degree of similarity ∙↑ recall performance error only when there's a certain amount of activity ∙Certain types of motor skills are remembered better over long periods than others

question

Strategies to Enhance Memory Performance

answer

1. Increasing a movement's meaningfulness ∙Visual metaphoric imagery - involves developing in your mind a picture of what a movement is like ∙Verbal labels 2. Intention to remember ∙Intentional and incidental memory 3. Subjective organization ∙Chunking, clustering, and grouping info in a way that's meaningful to an individual so they can remember it

question

Encoding Specificity Principle

answer

∙A memory principle that indicates the close relationship between encoding and retrieval memory processes; states that memory test performance is directly related to the amount of similarity between the practice and the test contexts ∙The more similarity, the better the test performance will be

question

CHAPTER 11

answer

CHAPTER 11

question

Performance

answer

The behavioral act of executing a skill at a specific time and in a specific situation 1. Observable behavior 2. Temporary 3. May not be due to practice 4. Influenced by performance variables

question

Learning

answer

Change in the capability of a person to perform a skill; must be inferred from a relatively permanent improvement in performance as a result of practice or experience 1. Inferred from performance 2. Relatively permanent 3. Due to practice 4. Not influenced by performance variables

question

6 Performance Characteristics of Skill Learning

answer

1. Improvement 2. Consistency 3. Stability 4. Persistence 5. Adaptability 6. Reduction of attention demand

question

Improvement

answer

Performance of the skill shows improvement over a period of time

question

Consistency

answer

As learning progresses, performance becomes increasingly more consistent

question

Stability

answer

The influence on skill performance of perturbations, which are internal or external conditions that can disrupt performance As learning progresses, performance stability increases; internal and external perturbations have less of an influence on performance Internal perturbations - stress External perturbations - environment

question

Persistence

answer

Improved performance capability is marked by an increasing amount of persistence Relatively permanent improvement in performance

question

Adaptability

answer

The improved performance is adaptable to a variety of performance context characteristics Generalizability

question

Performance Curves

answer

Line graph describing performance in which the level of achievement of a performance measure is plotted for a specific sequence of time or trials

question

Performance Curve: Linear

answer

∙Straight line ∙Indicates proportional performance increases over time ∙Not seen in real life

question

Performance Curve: Negatively Accelerated

answer

∙Indicates that large amount of improvement occurs early in practice with small improvements later ∙Most prominent type of performance curve for motor skill learning ∙Procedural memory ∙Automization ∙Stored in LTM ∙Simple skills

question

Performance Curve: Positively Accelerated

answer

∙Indicates a slight performance gain early in practice, but a substantial increase later in practice ∙Complex skills, skills with lots of steps

question

Performance Curve: Ogive/S-Shaped

answer

∙Combination of all three curves ∙Periods of progression, make no improvement and then rapid improvement ∙Physical/cognitive skills

question

Performance Curves for Kinematic Curves

answer

∙Performance production measures = improvement in performance and assess changes in consistency ∙When we use kinematics we cannot always develop performance curves ∙A kinematic measure typically does not lend itself to being represented by one number value each trial ∙Kinematic measures involve performance for a period of time within a trial; its important to include this time component in graphic component in graphic representation of a kinematic measure ∙To determine improvement in performance, compare early to later practice trials by examining how the shape of a person's produced pattern corresponds to shape of criterion pattern ∙To assess changes in consistency, compare how far the standard deviation lines are from the mean pattern for each block of trials

question

Retention Tests

answer

∙Test of a practiced skill that a learner performs following an interval of time after practice has ceased ∙Examines the persistence characteristic of improved performance ∙Time interval

question

Transfer Tests

answer

∙Test in which a person performs a skill that's different from the skill he/she practiced or performs the practiced skill in a context or situation different from the practice context or situation ∙Examines the adaptability aspect of performance changes related to learning

question

Learning from Coordination Dynamics

answer

∙Another method of assessing learning involved the observation of stabilities and transitions of dynamics of movement coordination related to performing a skill ∙Learning involves the transition from the initial movement coordination pattern (intrinsic dynamics), represented by a preferred coordination pattern the person exhibits when first attempting the new skill, to the establishment of the new coordination pattern ∙New spatial temporal and force coordination pattern

question

Practice Performance & Learning

answer

May be misleading to base an inference about learning solely on observed performance during practice because... 1. The practice situation may involve a performance variable, which has the potential to artificially inflate or depress performance 2. Practice performance may be misleading if it involves performance plateaus Transfer and retention tests should be given Ultimately "real life situations" are the test

question

Asymptote & Performance Plateau

answer

∙Performance plateau → while learning a skill, a period of time in which the learner experiences no improvement after having experienced consistent improvement; typically the learner then experiences further improvement with continued practice ∙Plateaus are performance rather than learning characteristics ∙Why do these occur? 1. Plateaus represent a period of transition between two phases of acquiring certain aspects of a skill 2. Represents a period of poor motivation, a time of fatigue, or a lack of attention directed to an important aspect of a skill 3. May be due to limitations imposed by the performance measure → ceiling or floor effects that occur

question

Ceiling/Floor Effects

answer

Performance measure won't permit score to go above or below a certain point (min or max)

question

CHAPTER 12

answer

CHAPTER 12

question

Fitts & Posner Three-Stage Model

answer

Learning a motor skill involves three stages 1. Cognitive stage 2. Associative stage 3. Autonomous stage

question

Cognitive Stage

answer

∙The beginning or initial stage on the learning stages continuum ∙Focuses on cognitively oriented problems related to what to do and how to do it ∙Declarative knowledge ∙Memorizing/learning sequence of events for a skill

question

Cognitive Stage: Performance, Learner Characteristics, and Cues

answer

Performance ∙Large errors and lacks consistency Learner Characteristics ∙Large # of errors ∙Attention to every detail of activity ∙Unable to screen out irrelevant info ∙Inconsistent performance ∙Slow, jerky, uncoordinated Cues ∙↑ precise, corrective feedback ∙Use short verbal cues ∙Use demonstrations, videotaping, etc. ∙Lots of opportunities to learn skill

question

Associative Stage

answer

∙An intermediate stage on the learning stages continuum ∙Refinement of movement pattern ∙Has learned to associate cues from the environment with required movements ∙Response execution → being facilitated via chunking ∙Proceduralization involves converting declarative into procedural knowledge

question

Associative Stage: Performance, Learner Characteristics, and Cues

answer

Performance ∙Consistency and fewer errors Learner Characteristics ∙Fewer errors ∙Motor program develops ∙Performer discovers environmental regularities (changes) ∙Anticipation develops ∙Learns to monitor own feedback Cues ∙Distribute corrective feedback (faded feedback) ∙Stress correct fundamentals ∙Accommodate differences in the rate of skill development ∙Lots of opportunity for practice

question

Autonomous Stage

answer

∙The final stage on the learning stages continuum, also called the automatic stage ∙Performance of movement is virtually automatic ∙Most people don't get to this stage ∙Expert stage

question

Autonomous Stage: Performance, Learner Characteristics, and Cues

answer

Performance ∙Movements are automatic ∙Limits are more likely physical or dependent on technology ∙Limited access to verbal description Learner Characteristics ∙Motor program becomes units of action ∙↓ attention demands ∙Confidence ↑, self-talks shifts to strategy ∙Performance gains are slower (fastest at first stage) Cues ∙Focus on strategy ∙Work on mental focus ∙Develop learner diagnosis of skill ∙Encourage, motivate, support

question

Gentile's Two-Stage Model

answer

Viewed motor skill learning as progressing through at least two stages and presented these stages from the perspective of the goal of the learner in each stage Initial stages of learning 1. Acquire a movement pattern that will allow some degree of success at achieving the action goal of the skill 2. Learn to discriminate between regulatory and non-regulatory conditions Later stages of learning 1. The person must develop the capability of adapting the movement pattern to the specific demands of any performance situation requiring that skill 2. The person must increase his or her consistency in achieving the goal of the skill 3. The person must learn to perform the skill with an economy of effort Includes fixation & discrimination

question

Regulatory Conditions

answer

Characteristics of the environmental context to which movement characteristics must conform if the action goal is to be accomplished Temporal, spatial, force application

question

Non-Regulatory Conditions

answer

Characteristics of the performance environment that have no influence or only an indirect influence on the movement characteristics required to achieve the action goal Non-relevant info

question

Fixation

answer

The learner's goal in the second stage of learning in Gentile's model for learning closed skills in which learners refine movement patterns so that they can produce them correctly, consistently, and efficiently from trial to trial

question

Diversification

answer

The learner's goal in the second stage of learning in Gentile's model for learning open skills in which learners acquire the capability to modify the movement pattern according to environmental context characteristics

question

Closed Skills

answer

∙Includes characteristics as similar as possible to those the learner will experience in his or her everyday world or in the environment in which he or she will perform the skill ∙Fixation ∙Bottleneck theory ∙Movement parameter changes ∙Changes kinetics ∙Change action planning and preparation

question

Open Skills

answer

∙Systematically vary the controllable regulatory conditions of actual performance situations, while allowing naturally varying characteristics to occur as they normally would ∙Diversification ∙Change invariant or parameters of movement pattern

question

Negatively Accelerated Pattern in Rate of Performing

answer

∙As a person progresses along the skill learning continuum from the beginner stage to the highly skilled stage, the rate at which the performance improves changes ∙Early in practice, a learner usually experiences a large amount of improvement relatively quickly, but as practice continues, the amount of improvement decreases ∙Power Law of Practice

question

Power Law of Practice

answer

∙Mathematical law describing the negatively accelerating change in rate of performance improvement during skill learning; large amounts of improvement occur during early practice, but smaller improvement rates characterize further practice ∙Negative acceleration curve

question

Changes in Movement Coordination

answer

∙Nicholas Bernstein ∙Freezing the degrees of freedom ∙Need to constrain the many degrees of freedom associated with muscles and joints

question

Freezing Degrees of Freedom

answer

Common initial strategy of beginning learners to control the many degrees of freedom associated with the coordination demands of a motor skill; the person holds some joints rigid and/or couples joint motions together in tight synchrony while performing the skill

question

Changing Coordination Patterns

answer

∙Changes in rate of improvement ∙Individuals approach skill learning situations with movement bias ∙Limb kinematics irregular ∙Bilateral confusion

question

Muscles Used

answer

Early Practice ∙More muscles needed ∙Recruitment motor units not precise Reorganization of motor control system ∙Solve freedom problem ∙Recruitment of motor units sequential

question

Energy Cost

answer

∙Economy of movement ∙Physiological energy ∙Mechanical energy

question

Changing Visual Selective Attention

answer

∙Beginners look at too many things ∙Greater sources of information ∙Timing aspect of directing visual attention is important because it increases the time available in which a person can select and produce action

question

Changing Conscious Attention Demands

answer

∙Cognitive control structures (attention, perception, memory, processing) ∙Motor control (kinematics, control laws, etc.)

question

Changing Error Detection & Correction

answer

Capability to identify and correct one's own movement errors Declarative stage ∙Performance based on declarative knowledge ∙Must be retrieved from working memory and attended in a step-by-step fashion ∙Slow, non-fluent, and error prone performance Procedural stage ∙Performance based on procedural knowledge ∙Automatic ∙Error detection and correction ∙Amount of conscious attention ↓

question

Changes in Brain Activity

answer

∙More "automatic" skill becomes different in later stages as well ∙Brain reacts and adapts in response to challenge ∙Emotions and focus of attention compete → take parallel paths in the brain ∙Intention can create change ∙How? Brain is sensitive to conflict → to strengthen our brains, we want to reach the "challenge" point, where a task is too difficult to perform ∙Brain areas that are active during the early stage of learning aren't always the same areas that are active during later stages in learning ∙Brain undergoes structural changes in addition to functional changes when new skills are learned ∙Early learning is cerebellum ∙Later learning is basal ganglia

question

Brain "Plasticity"

answer

∙Plasticity → changes in neuronal activity in the brain that are associated with shifts in brain region activation; these changes are commonly associated with behavioral changes or modifications

question

Expertise

answer

∙Amount and type of practice → 10 years of deliberate and intense practice ∙Knowledge structure organized into more concepts related to performing an activity, better able to interrelate the concepts - domain and activity specific ∙Problem solving/decision making/anticipation ∙Vision - select more meaningful info in short amount of time ∙May want to resist automatization so they can keep learning ∙NOT FULLY AUTOMATED

question

CHAPTER 13

answer

CHAPTER 13

question

Transfer of Learning

answer

The influence of prior learning on the learning of a new skill or the performance of a skill in a new context

question

Positive Transfer

answer

∙The beneficial effect of prior learning on the learning of a new skill or the performance of a skill in a new context ∙Transfer occurs primarily because of similarities between amounts and types of learning processes required ∙Larger, more gross movements are the only skills that prove to make a positive transfer

question

Why does positive transfer of learning occur?

answer

1. Similarity of skill and context components 2. Similarity of processing requirements

question

Negative Transfer

answer

∙The negative effect of prior learning on the learning of a new skill or the performance of a skill in a new context ∙When previous experiences hinder or interfere with the learning of a new skill ∙Refers to a situation where generally, the skills may be similar between the sport, but in reality the techniques and environmental conditions are very different ∙Rare and temporary ∙Occurs when new skill or context involves similar environmental features but requires a different movement response ∙Can be overcome with practice ∙Can cause discouragement early in practice

question

Why does negative transfer of learning occur?

answer

1. Motor control system required to perform in non-preferred manner for the environmental context 2. Cognitive confusion 3. A familiar stimulus requires a new response

question

Zero Transfer

answer

Previous experience has no influence on the learning of a new skill

question

Why is transfer of learning important?

answer

1. Sequencing skills to be learned (simple > complex) 2. Developing instructional methods (Whole-Part-Whole, Part-Whole) 3. Assessing the effectiveness of practice conditions 4. Returning to daily activities

question

Factors Affecting Transfer

answer

1. Movement response/patterns 2. Psychomotor demands 3. Cognitive demands 4. Biomotor demands 5. Psychological demands

question

Skill & Context Similarities

answer

∙More specific the practice or training drills is part of a movement (competitive settings and demands), the more positive transfer ∙Assessing effectiveness of practice conditions → transfer test performance will provide best assessment ∙Thorndike's "identical elements" theory

question

Identical Elements Theory

answer

An explanation of positive transfer proposing that transfer is due to the degree of similarity between the component parts or characteristics of two skills or two performance contexts

question

Transfer Appropriate Processing Theory

answer

An explanation of positive transfer proposing that transfer is due to the similarity in the cognitive processing characteristics required by the two skills or two performance situations

question

Bilateral Transfer

answer

∙Transfer of learning that occurs between two limbs ∙Research shows more support for asymmetric Requires... 1. Cognitive and motor factors 2. Initial stage of learning 3. Goal achievement

question

Symmetric Transfer (cognitive/motor control rationale)

answer

Bilateral transfer in which the amount of transfer is similar from one limb to another, no matter which limb is used first

question

Asymmetric Transfer

answer

Bilateral transfer in which there is a greater amount of transfer from one limb than from the other limb

question

Why does bilateral transfer occur?

answer

Cognitive Explanation ∙Important cognitive information acquired from practice with one limb and available when other limb begins to perform Motor Control Explanation ∙GMP and dynamic pattern theories both provide a basis for bilateral transfer ∙Evidence from EMG activity in non-performing contra-lateral limb ∙Interhemispheric transfer of components

Motor Learning Exam 2 – Flashcards

Unlock all answers in this set

Haven't found what you were looking for?

Search for samples, answers to your questions and flashcards