question

theories of social development attempt to

answer

account for important aspects of development: emotion, personality, attachment, self, peer relationships, morality, and gender

question

social development theories

answer

-explain how children's development is affected by the people and social institutions around them.

question

psychoanalytic theories

answer

stress the continuity of individual differences, emphasizing that children's early experiences have a major impact on their subsequent development.

question

Freud's psychosexual theory

answer

even very young children have a sexual nature that motivates their behavior and influences their relationships with other people.

question

Erikson's psychosocial theory

answer

accepted the basic elements of Freud's theory, but incorporated social factors into it, including cultural influences and contemporary issues, such as juvenile delinquency, changing sexual roles, and the generation gap.

question

continuity/discontinuity

answer

Freud & Erikson's theories are stage theories that have a framework of discontinuous development, but within that framework the theories stress the continuity of individual differences.

question

nature/nurture

answer

both theories emphasize the biological underpinnnings of developmental stages and how they interact with the child's experience.

question

individual differences

answer

psychoanalytic theories stress the continuity of individual differences, emphasizing that children's early experiences have a major impact on their subsequent development.

question

basic features of Freud's psychosexual theories

answer

universal developmental stages in which psychic energy becomes focused

question

psychic energy

answer

biologically based, instinctual drives that energize behavior, thoughts, and feelings.

question

erogenous zones

answer

areas of the body that become sensitive in successive stages of development

question

id

answer

-biological drives with which infant is born -earliest & most primitive personality structure -unconscious & operates with goal of seeking pleasure--the pleasure principle

question

the pleasure principle

answer

the goal of achieving maximal gratification maximally quickly

question

ego

answer

-emerges in first year -rational, logical, problem solving component of personality--reality principle

question

reality principle

answer

trying to find ways to satisfy the id that accord with the demands of the real world.

question

superego

answer

-develops during ages 3-6 -based on child's internalization of parents' attributes, beliefs, and standards -conscience

question

Freud's Stages

answer

-oral -anal -phallic -latency -genital

question

oral stage

answer

-1st year -primary source of satisfaction and pleasure in oral activities -mother established as the strongest love object

question

anal stage

answer

-1 to 3 years -primary source of pleasure comes from defecation

question

phallic stage

answer

-3 to 6 years -primary source of pleasure in the genitalia

question

latency stage

answer

-6 to 12 years -sexual energy channeled into socially acceptable activities

question

genital stage

answer

-12+ years -sexual maturation complete and sexual intercourse becomes major goal

question

path to superego development

answer

-boys: through resolution of Oedipus complex -girls: through similar but less intense conflict, Electra complex

question

Oedipus complex

answer

freud's term for the conflict experienced by boys in the phallic period because of their sexual desire for their mother and their fear of retaliation by their father.

question

Electra complex

answer

the conflict experienced by girls in the phallic stage when they develop unacceptable romantic feelings for their father and see their mother as a rival.

question

healthy development

answer

culminates in the ability to invest & derive pleasure from love and work.

question

compromises to healthy development

answer

-fixation may occur if fundamental needs not met during any stage -attempts to satisfy need and resolve associated conflicts may occur throughout life

question

Erikson's theory includes

answer

-8 age-related stages (5 during childhood & adolescence) -each stage characterized by specific crisis that individual must resolve -if dominant issue of stage not successfully resolved before next stage, person will continue to struggle with it

question

trust vs. mistrust stage

answer

-1st year -developing trust in other people is the crucial issue.

question

autonomy vs. shame & doubt stage

answer

-1 to 3.5 yrs -the challenge is to achieve a strong sense of autonomy while adjusting to increased social demands

question

initiative vs. guilt stage

answer

-4 to 6 years -resolved when child develops high standards and initiative to meet them without being crushed by worry about not being able to measure up.

question

industry vs. inferiority stage

answer

-6 to puberty -child must master cognitive and social skills, learn to work industriously, and play well with others.

question

identity vs role confusion stage

answer

-adolescence to early adulthood -adolescents must resolve question of who they really are or live in confusion about what roles they should play as adults.

question

contributions to developmental psychology

answer

-the most significant of Freud's contributions were his emphasis on the importance of early experience & emotional relationships and his recognition of the role of subjective experience and unconscious mental activity. -Erikson's emphasis on the quest for for identity in adolescence has had a lasting impact, providing the foundation for a wealth of research on this aspect of adolescence.

question

signal weakness of both theories

answer

their major theoretical claims are stated too vaguely to be testable, and many of their specific elements, particularly in Freud's theory, are generally regarded as highly questionable.

question

original ideas that have reemerged in modified form in psychological research & thinking

answer

-Freud's identification of infantile amnesia. He was correct in noting that few of us have conscious memories from our first few years. However, no one thinks it is due to repression like he claimed. -Erikson's stages of development have received some support from research on autobiographical memory. Reported memories from older adults have corresponded quite well with his stages.

question

More of Freud's lasting impacts..

answer

-emphasis on the importance of early experience and close relationships was especially influential in setting the foundation for modern-day attachment theory. -his insight that much of our mental life occurs outside the realm of consciousness is fundamental to modern cognitive psychology and brain science.

question

Early learning theorists

answer

-emphasized the role of external factors in shaping personality and social behavior. -they have made very bold claims about the extent to which development can be guided by how people reward, or reinforce, certain of children's behaviors and punish or ignore others.

question

more contemporary learning theorists

answer

have emphasized the importance of cognitive factors and the active role children play in their own development.

question

central developmental issues of learning theories

answer

-the primary developmental question on which learning theories take a unanimous stand is continuity/discontinuity: they all emphasize continuity, proposing that the same principles control learning & behavior throughout life & that therefore there are no qualitatively different stages in development. -like information-processing theorists, learning theorists focus on the role of specific mechanisms of change, which in their view, involve learning principles, such as reinforcement & observational learning. -they believe that children become different from one another primarily because they have different histories of reinforcement & learning opportunities. -the theme of research & children's welfare is also relevant here in that therapeutic approaches based on learning principles have been widely used to treat children with a variety of problems.

question

Watson's Behaviorism

answer

-children's development determined by social experience -learning through conditioning was primary mechanism of development -demonstrated power of classical conditioning in famous "little albert" experiment.

question

systematic desensitization

answer

a form of therapy based on classical conditioning, in which positive responses are gradually conditioned to stimuli that initially elicited a highly negative response. this approach is especially useful in the treatment of fears and phobias.

question

watson's contributions/weaknesses

answer

-contributions: approach to extinguishing fears has been widely used to rid people of phobias -weaknesses: exclusive emphasis on conditioning now regarded as simplistic.

question

skinner's operant conditioning

answer

-focuses on importance of attention as a powerful reinforcer -highlights difficulty of extinguishing behavior that has been intermittently reinforced.

question

intermittent reinforcement

answer

inconsistent response to the behavior of another person, for example, sometimes punishing an unacceptable behavior and sometimes ignoring it.

question

behavior modification

answer

a form of therapy based on principles of operant conditioning in which reinforcement contingencies are changes to encourage more adaptive behavior.

question

social learning theory

answer

-like other learning theories, attempts to account for personality & other aspects of social development in terms of learning mechanisms. -emphasizes observation & imitation, rather than reinforcement as the primary mechanisms of development. -children can learn from symbolic models, like reading books and watching tv or movies in the absence of any reinforcement for their behavior.

question

bandura

answer

-argued that most human learning is inherently social in nature and is based on observation of the behavior of other people.

question

reciprocal determinism

answer

bandura's concept that child-environment influences operate in both directions; children are affected by aspects of their environment, but they also influence the environment. *child & violent video games example.

question

perceived self-efficacy

answer

an individual's beliefs about how effectively he or she can control his or her own behavior, thoughts, and emotions in order to achieve a desired goal.

question

vicarious reinforcement

answer

observing someone else receive a reward or punishment

question

Bandura's research

answer

-bobo doll study -question was whether vicarious reinforcement would affect the children's subsequent reproduction of the behavior -results: children who had seen the adult model punished did not initially reproduce their actions, however they were able to remember what they had seen when they were asked later on. boys acted more aggressively than girls.

question

contributions of learning theories

answer

-they are based on principles that are derived from empirical research -they have generated extensive research & valuable practical applications

question

weaknesses of learning theories

answer

lack of attention to biological influences and, except for Bandura's theory, to the role of cognition in influencing behavior.

question

social cognition theories

answer

-relate to children's ability to think and reason about their own & others people's thoughts, feelings, motives, and behaviors. -emphasize the process of self-socialization

question

self-socialization

answer

the idea that children play a very active role in their own socialization through their activity preferences, friendship choices, and so on.

question

central development issues of social cognition theories

answer

-active child: most relevant -individual differences: particularly in the comparisons that are drawn between the thinking and behavior of males and females, aggressive & nonaggressive children, & so on. -continuity/discontinuity: important in some stage theories that emphasize age-related qualitative changes in how children think about the social world. on the other hand, information-processing theories stress continuity in the processes involved in social reasoning.

question

Selman's Stage Theory of Role Taking

answer

-Proposed that role taking is essential to understanding another person's thoughts, feelings, or motives. -Like Piaget, suggested that before the age of 6 years, children are virtually unaware that there is any perspective other than their own. -Proposed that children go through 4 increasingly complex & abstract stages in their thinking about people -As children become less egocentric in their reasoning, they become increasingly capable of considering multiple perspectives simultaneously. -Mirrors cognitive changes identified by Piaget

question

role taking

answer

being aware of the perspective of another person, thereby better understanding that person's behavior, thoughts, and feelings.

question

Selman's Stages

answer

-stage 1 (ages 6 to 8): children come to appreciate that someone else can have a perspective different from their own, but they assume that the different perspective is merely due to that person's not possessing the same information they do. -stage 2 (ages 8 to 10): children not only realize that someone else can have a different view, but they also are able to think about the other person's point of view. -stage 3 (ages 10 to 12): children can systematically compare their own and another person's point of view. in this stage, they can also take the perspective of a third party and assess the points of view of two other people. -stage 4 (age 12 & older): adolescents attempt to understand another's perspective by comparing it to that of a "generalized other", assessing whether the person's view is the same as that of most people in their social group.

question

Dodge's Information-Processing Theory of Social Problem Solving

answer

-emphasizes crucial role of cognitive processes in social behavior -view children's use of aggression as a problem-solving strategy.

question

hostile attributional bias

answer

in Dodge's theory, the tendency to assume that other people's ambiguous actions stem from a hostile intent.

question

why does a hostile attributional bias develop?

answer

-physically abused children are particularly likely to attribute anger to others, even in neutral situations. -these children are better at recognizing angry facial expressions than children who have not experiences abuse. -also have difficulty reasoning about negative emotions, aren't sure which situations should provoke anger.

question

Dweck's Theory of Self-Attribution and Achievement Motivation

answer

focuses on how children's achievement motivation is influenced by their attributions about the reasons for their successes and failures.

question

achievement motivation

answer

refers to whether children are motivated by learning goals, seeking to improve their competence & master new material, or by performance goals, seeking to receive positive assessments of their competence or to avoid negative assessments.

question

entity/helpless orientation

answer

a general tendency to attribute success and failure to enduring aspects of the self and to give up in the face of failure.

question

incremental/mastery orientation

answer

a general tendency to attribute success and failure to the amount of effort expended and to persist in the face of failure.

question

entity theory

answer

a theory that a person's level of intelligence is fixed & unchangeable.

question

incremental theory

answer

a theory that a person's intelligence can grow as a function of experience

question

real world ramifications

answer

-praising children for working hard supports an incremental/mastery pattern -offering praise & criticism based on enduring traits reinforces an entity/helpless pattern.

question

contributions of theories of social cognition

answer

important theoretical contributions and these theories are supported by research

question

weaknesses of theories of social cognition

answer

they have very little to say about biological factors in social development.

question

Ecological Theories of Development

answer

examine behavior within the evolutionary context, trying to under it's adaptive or survival value.

question

ethological and evolutionary theories

answer

view children as inheritors of genetically based abilities and predispositions. the focus of these theories is largely on aspects of behavior that serve, or once served, an adaptive function.

question

bioecological model

answer

stresses the effects of context on development, but it also emphasizes the child's active role in selecting and influencing those contexts. children's personal characteristics-temperament, intellectual ability, athletic skill, and so on-lead them to choose certain environments over others, and also influence the people around them.

question

central development issues of ecological theories

answer

-interaction of nature and nurture -the importance of the sociocultural context and the continuity of development -the active role of children in their own development.

question

Ethological & Evolutionary Theories

answer

-concerned with aspects of developments and behavior in terms of a given animal's evolutionary heritage. -particularly interested in species-specific behaviors (behaviors that are common to a particular species but aren't typically observed in other species)

question

ethology

answer

attempts to understand behavior in terms of its adaptive or survival value. according to ethologists, a variety of innate behavior patterns in animals were shaped by evolution just as surely as their physical characteristics were.

question

imprinting

answer

a form of learning in which the young of some species of newborn birds and mammals become attached to and follow adult members of the species (usually their mother)

question

humans & ethology

answer

-human newborns do not imprint, but they do have strong tendencies that draw them to members of their own species -gender differences are affected by evolved predispositions. females have an innate preference for dolls (nurturant play), males have an innate preference for vehicle toys (action play)

question

evolutionary psychology

answer

-applies Darwinian concepts of natural selection and adaptation to human behavior -basic idea of this approach is that in the evolutionary history of our species, certain genes predisposed individuals to behave in ways that solved the adaptive challenges they faced, thereby increasing the likelihood that they would survive, mate, and reproduce, passing along their genes to their offspring. -the most important adaptive feature of humans is large size of brains relative to body size which necessitates a prolonged period of immaturity. *humans are "slow developing, big-brained species compared to other primates"

question

parental investment theory

answer

-stresses evolutionary basis of many aspects of parental behavior, including extensive parental investment -suggests parents' genes are perpetuated only if offspring survive and reproduce

question

implication of evolutionary view of development

answer

radical departures from species-typical environment could have negative consequences on development. *implications for premature babies.

question

bioecological model

answer

Urie Brofenbrenner presents child's environment as composed of a series of nested structures, with every level having an impact on development. -microsystem, mesosytem, exosystem, macrosystem, chronosystem

question

microsystem

answer

-the first level in which the child is embedded -the activities, roles, and relationships in which the child directly participates over time -the child's family is a crucial component -bidirectional nature of all relationships within the microsystem

question

mesosystem

answer

-encompasses the connections among various microsystems, such as family, peers, and schools -supportive relations among these contexts can benefit the child

question

exosystem

answer

-comprises settings that children may not directly be a part of but that can still influence their development -parent's workplaces are an example

question

macrosystem

answer

-consists of the general beliefs, values, customs, and laws of the larger society in which all the other levels are embedded -includes cultural and social class groups to which the child belongs

question

chronosystem

answer

historical changes that influence the other systems

question

child maltreatment

answer

intentional abuse or neglect that endangers the well being of anyone under the age of 18

question

causes of maltreatment

answer

-microsystem: parents with low self-esteem, strong negative reactions to stress, poor impulse control, and alcohol and drug dependency. children who are low birth weight, have physical or cognitive challenges & difficult temperament. -mesosystem & exosystem: low family income, high levels of unemployment, inadequate housing & community violence.

question

consequences of maltreatment

answer

-one of the most serious threats to child development in the US -maltreated children: have less secure relationships with parents, show less empathy and self esteem, more conflicts with peers, and difficulty with school.

question

concerns about children's exposure to media

answer

violence, physical inactivity, academic achievement, social inequities, pornography

question

SES and Development

answer

-the effects of poverty on child development operate at all levels -affluence can also have negative effects on development: higher levels of anxiety & depression, may arise because more affluent families tend to pressure children to excel and often provide them with little support.

question

contribution of ecological theories and evolutionary pyschology

answer

emphasis on children's biological nature, including genetic tendencies grounded in evolution

question

criticism of evolutionary psychology

answer

-many claims impossible to test -overlooks our capacity to transform our environments and ourselves

question

contribution/criticism of bioecological model

answer

-has highlighted how complex the development of every child is -lacks emphasis on biological factors

Child Psych CH 9 – Flashcards

Unlock all answers in this set

Haven't found what you were looking for?

Search for samples, answers to your questions and flashcards