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The persistence of learning over time

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memory

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The process of encoding refers to

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getting information into memory

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The process of getting information out of memory is called

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retrieval

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A modern information-proccessing model that views memories as emerging from particular activation patterns within neural networks

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connectionism

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Your consciously activated but limited capacity memory

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short-term

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Automatic processing occurs without

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conscious awareness

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The conscious repetition of information to maintain it in memory

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rehearsal

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Ebbinghaus's use of nonsense syllables to study memory led to the discovery that

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the amount remembered depends on the time spent learning

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Th tendency to immediately recall the first and last times in a list better than the middle items is known as the

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serial position effect.

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Encoding meaning

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@@@@@

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Our preconceived ideas contribute to our ability to process new information best illustrates the importance of

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meaning in encoding

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Relating to life experiences to remember information; This strategy is an effective memory aid because it facilitates

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meaningful encoding

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More likely to remember words that you can picture like "apple" than "process" because of the process of

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imagery

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A mnemonic device is a

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memory aid

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Chess master can recall the exact position of most pieces after a brief glance at the game board. This ability is bestsellers explained in terms of

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chunking@@@@

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When Sperling visually displayed three rows of three letter each for only one-twentieth of a second, research participants

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had momentary photographic memory of all nine letters.

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Learning involves a

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relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience

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The process of learning associations

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Classical Conditioning

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Pets who learn that the sound of an electric opener signals the arrival of their food illustrate

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learning by association.

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The first experimental studies of associative learning were conducted by

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Pavlov

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Who believed that he could teach anybody to excel in any field if he could begin conditioning early enough

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John B. Watson

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In classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning is called

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neutral stimulus

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The unconditioned stimulus in Pavlov's experiments was

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the presentation of food in the dogs mouths

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A tone causes a dog to salivate because it has regularly been associated with the presentation of food, the tone is

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a conditioned stimulus

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In classical conditioning, the neutral stimulus becomes a ________ after it reliably signals the impending occurrence of the ________

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Conditioned Stimulus; Unconditioned stimulus

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Associating a conditioned stimulus with a new neutral stimulus can create a second conditioned stimulus. This illustrates

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higher-order conditioning

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Occurs when a Conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with a unconditioned stimulus

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Extinction

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The reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response.

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Spontaneous recovery

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Dogs conditioned to salivate when rubbed on their front paws also began to salivate when other parts of their bodies were rubbed

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Generalization

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Toddlers taught to fear speeding cars may also begin to fear speeding trucks and motorcycles.

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Generalization

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Compared with non-abused children, those who have experienced a history of abuse who a stronger brain-wave response to an unfamiliar but angry-looking face.

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Generalization

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The ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus is called

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discrimination

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The ______ ______ would be likely to emphasize that classical conditioning depends on an organism's expectation that an unconditioned stimulus will follow a conditioned stimulus.

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cognitive perspective

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The idea that any perceivable neutral stimulus can swerve as a conditioned stimulus was challenged by

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Garcia and Koelling's findings on taste aversion rats.

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Watson and Rayner's study of Little Albert demonstrated how specific fears may be produced through

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classical conditioning

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An organism learns association between events it does not control during the process of

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classical conditioning

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voluntary behaviors that produce rewarding or punishing consequences are

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operant behaviors

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cats received a fish reward whenever they maneuvered themselves out of an enclosed puzzle box. With successive trials, the cats escaped from the box with increasing speed.

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The law of effect.

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Skinner developed a behavioral technology that included a procure known as

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shaping

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You would be most likely to use operant conditioning to tech a dog to

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retrieve sticks and balls

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Demonstration of appreciation for very good answers to questions and students stop participating. Should use

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Shaping

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Any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response is

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positive reinforcer.

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positive reinforcers __________ the rate of operant responding , and negative reinforcers ______ the rate of operant responding

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Increase; increase

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A Stimulus that acquires reinforcing by association with a primary reinforcer is called a

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conditioned reinforcer.

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A response is learned most ________ and most resistant to ________ if it is acquired under conditions of continuous reinforcement followed by partial reinforcement.

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rapidly; extinction

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The way slot machines reward gamblers with money best illustrates

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partial reinforcements

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A fixed-ratio schedule of reinforcement is one in which a response is reinforced only after a

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specified number of responses have been made.

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Asking women for dates is most likely to reinforce on a

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variable-ratio schedule

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Revoking the driver's license of a reckless driver is intended to serve as a

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negative punishment

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A child who is pushed for swearing at home but not for swearing on the school playground is most likely to demonstrate a patterned habit of swearing that is indicative of

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discrimination

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Th fat that learning can occur without reinforcement is most clearly demonstrated by studies of

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latent learning

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Animals tend to revert from newly learned habits to their biologically predisposed behaviors.

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Instinctive drift

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which of the following is LEAST likely tone considered an important component of effective student instruction involving the use of interactive software?

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Respondent Behavior

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The study of respondent behavior is to __________ as the study of operant behavior is to ___________

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Pavlov; Skinner

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A learned association between two stimuli is central to

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classical conditioning

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Our ability to learn by witnessing the behavior of others best illustrates

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observational learning.

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Jeremy wear his baseball cap backward because he noticed his older brother does.

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Modeling

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Mirror neurons provide a biological basis for

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observational learning

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Children are helped by ________ to develop a theory of mind.

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Mirror neurons

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The reduced imitative yawning displayed by Peo;e with autism is mist directly related to their recused levels of

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mirror neuron activity.

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Who highlighted the importance of observational leaning?

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Bandura

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Preschool children pounded and kicked a large inflatable BOBO doll that an adult had just beaten.

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Observational learning

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Socially responsive toddler who readily imitate their parents tend to become preschooler with a strong internalized conscience.

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Observational Learning

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Children are especially likely to behave aggressively after viewing television violence in which an attractive person commits

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justified violence that causes no visible pain or harm

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Two factors that contribute to the violence-viewing effect

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desensitization and imitation

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The address for obtaining ticket to a popular quiz show is shown, but the image disappears before Sam has a chance to write down the complete address. To his surprise he has retained a momentary mental image of the 5 digit zip code.

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Iconic memory

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A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli

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Echoic memory

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Peterson and Peterson demonstrated that unrehearsed short-term memories for three consonants almost completely decay in as short a time as

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12 seconds

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Type of memory that has an essentially unlimited capacity

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long-term memory

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Karl Ashley trained rats to solve a maze and the removed pieces of their cortexes. Storage of their maze memories has not ___________ to specific regions of the ________

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restricted; cortex

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One effect of ____________-______ _________ is that a receiving neuron's receptor sites are increased.

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long term potentiation

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Stress hormones promote stronger memories by

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increasing the availability of glucose.

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The loss of memory is called

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amnesia

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Remembering how to solve a jigsaw puzzle without any conscious recollection that you can do so best illustrates

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implicit memory

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The hippocampus plays a critical role in

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explicit memory

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Cerebellum is to ________ memory as hippocampus is to __________ memory

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implicit; explicit

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Words, events, places, and emotions that trigger our memory of the past are called

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retrieval cues

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After his last drinking spree, John had a half-empty liquor bottle. He couldn't remember where he hid it until he started drinking again.

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State-dependent memory

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Mood-congruent memory refers to the effector emotional states on the process of

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retrieval

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A person who has trouble forgetting information, such as the Russian memory whiz S, often seems to have a limited capacity for

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abstract learning

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The inability to recall what letters accompany the number 5 on your telephone is most likely due to

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encoding failure

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Ebbinghaus discovered that the rate at which we forget newly learned information is initially

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rapid and subsequently slows down

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The title of a song is on the tip of Sara's tongue, but she cannot recall it until someone mentions the songwriters name. Sara's initial inability to recall the title was most likely caused by

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retrieval failure

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Disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information

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proactive interference

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Arnold so easily remembers his new girlfriend's telephone number, but finds it difficult to recall his old girlfriends number. This difficulty illustrates

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retroactive interference

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Old information can sometimes facilitate our learning of new information as when knowing Spanish can help us learn Italian.

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Positive transfer

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The findings that people who sleep after learning a list of nonsense syllables forget less than people who stay awake provide evidence that forgetting may involve

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interference

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Compulsive gamblers frequently recall losing less money thanks actually the case.

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Source amnesia

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Michael Ross and his colleagues observed that people exposed to very convincing arguments about the value of frequent toothbrushing tended to

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exaggerate how frequently they had brushed their teeth in the past

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Sigmund Freud emphasized that the forgetting of painful experiences is caused by a process that involves

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retrieval failure

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Among contemporary memory researches, increasing numbers think that _________ rarely occurs

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repression

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Loftus and Palmer asked two groups of observers how fast two groups of observers how fast two cars had been going in a filmed traffic accident. Observers who heard the vividly descriptive word "smashed" in relation to the accident later recalled

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broken glass at the scene of the accident

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Research on memory construction indicates that

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false memories often feel as real as true memories

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The misinformation effect best illustrates the dynamics of

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memory construction

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Visualizing an object and actually seeing that object activate similar brain areas. This most clearly contributes to

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imagination inflation

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By incorporating errors originating from a hypnotist's leading questions, "hypnotically refreshed" memories often illustrate

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the misinformation effect

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When children are interviewed about their recollections of possible sexual abuse, their reports are especially credible if involved adults have ______ discussed the issue with them prior to the interviews

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not

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Forming many associations between new course material and what you already know is an effective way to build a network of

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retrieval cues

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