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Sensation

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The process of detecting environmental stimuli or stimuli arising from the body

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Perception

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The process of interpreting sensory information

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Transduction

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The translation of incoming sensory information into neural signals

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Sensory Adaptation

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The tendency to pay less attention to a nonchanging source of stimulation (bad smells, cold pool, etc) Emphasize change in responding to sensory events rather than perceiving constant stimulation

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Subliminal Perception

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Existence vs. practical effects (example your brain registers everything in the room but you are only focused on the professor's voice)

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Bottom-up Processing

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Perception based on building simple input into more complex perceptions (type we use to perceive things for the first time)

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Top-down Processing

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A perceptual process in which memory and other cognitive processes are required for interpreting incoming sensory information (uses knowledge we have already gained, is speedy but can be very inaccurate-people see what they expect to see)

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Psychophysics

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The study of relationships between the physical qualities of stimuli and the subjective responses they produce (the methods of psychophysics allow us to establish limits of awareness, or thresholds, for each of our sensory systems)

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Absolute threshold

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The smallest amount of stimulus that can be detected-our senses are sensitive under ideal circumstances (for example, you can see the equivalent of a candle flame 30 miles away on a moonless night)

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Difference threshold (Just Noticeable Difference)

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The smallest detectable difference between two stimuli-as stimuli get larger, differences must also become larger to be detected by an observer (for example, it is easier to detect the difference between a 5 lb weight and a 10 lb weight than between a 400 lb weight and a 405 lb weight, even though the absolute difference in weight is the same in both cases)

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Signal Detection

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The analysis of sensory and decision making processes in the detection of faint, uncertain stimuli-a "signal" is always embedded in noise

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Sensitivity

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Threshold level for distinguishing signal from the noise (competition of everything going on with whatever it is you're trying to focus on)

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Bias

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Willingness to report noticing a stimulus-mindset

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Hit

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Signal is present and you perceive it accurately

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Correct Rejection

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No signal and you don't perceive a signal

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Miss

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Miss a signal that is there

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False Alarm

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When you perceive a signal, but there is no signal

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Vision

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The sense that allows us to process reflected light-one of the most important sensory systems in humans

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Light is

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Waveform energy

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Wavelength

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The distance between successive peaks of waves, is decoded by our visual system as color or shades of gray (Wavelength determines color)

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Amplitude

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The height of the wave, is translated by the visual system into brightness (large-amplitude waves appear very bright, and low-amplitude waves appear dim)

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Frequency

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How quickly the wave hits a solid object (short wavelengths=high frequency, long wavelength=low frequency)

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Hue

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Scientific term for color

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Cornea

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The clear surface at the front of the eye that begins the process of directing light to the retina (beings the process of bending light to form an image on the back of the eye)

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Pupil

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An opening formed by the iris (hole in the eye that changes size to allow more or less light in)

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Iris

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The brightly colored circular muscle surrounding the pupil of the eye (a muscle that adjusts the opening of the pupil in response to the amount of light present in the environment and to signals from the autonomic nervous system)

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Lens

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The clear structure behind the pupil that bends light toward the retina (an organic, flexible glass that changes shape to allow us to adjust our focus to see near or distant objects)

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Accomodation

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Changing of the shape of the lens to focus on different distances of objects

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Retina

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Layers of visual processing cells in the back of the eye (a thin but complex network of neurons specialized for the processing of light. it's the organ of visual transduction-light energy to electrochemical energy)

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Vision is the most complex of the human senses

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50% of the cerebral cortex is devoted entirely to dealing with vision

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Rods (100-120 million)

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A photoreceptor specialized to detect dim light. They are sensitive to light. They allow for peripheral vision but do not provide information about color (only register shades of gray) and they don't provide clear sharp, images (under starlight, normal human vision is 20/200 rather than 20/20 in normal daylight) Not in fovea

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Dark Adaptation

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The amount of time for the rods to adjust in the dark (usually about 30 minutes)

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Cones (5-6 million)

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A photoreceptor in the retina that processes color. Function best under bright light and provide the ability to see both sharp images and color. Sensitive to particular wavelengths and denser near fovea. The average human can see millions of colors

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The primary colors of light are red, green, and blue

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Mixing them together produces white light, like sunlight

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Trichromacy Theory

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A theory of color vision based on the existence of different types of cones for the detection of short (blue), medium (green), and long (red) wavelengths. It is good for explaining colorblindness, but it is less successful in accounting for other color vision phenomena (for example afterimages)

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Color Blindness

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Where a person is born without at least one of the cones (usually inability to see red or green cones)

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Opponent Process Theory

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A theory of color vision that suggest we have a red-green channel and a blue-yellow color channel in which activation of one color in each pair inhibits the other (in other words, we cannot see a color like "reddish-green" or "bluish-yellow" because the two colors share the same channel. We cannot see opposite colors at the same time)

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Afterimages

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After staring at a flag that is green, yellow, and black fatigues that group and causes a rebound effect in each color channel, and your afterimage looks red, white, and blue (black and white also share a channel)

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Feature Detectors

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A hypothetical cell that responds to only one specific visual stimulus (Neurons in the brain designed to respond to specific features)

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Facial feature detectors are unique to humans

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We're the only species that recognizes others by facial features

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Gestalt

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Based on the idea that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. Are brains are wired to perceive meaning in the visual world even when none exists

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Gestalt Principle of Proximity

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Objects that are close together tend to be grouped together

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The Principle of Similarity

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States that similar stimuli are grouped together

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The Principle of Continuity

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Suggests that we assume that points that form smooth lines when connected probably belong together

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Perceptual Constancies

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Quality, such as color, appears the same even though the way they appear may change

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Depth perception

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The ability to use the two-dimensional image projected on the retina to perceive three dimensions (without it we would have no ability to interact in a 3D world and we would not be able to funciton-for humans it is the most important part of vision)

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Monocular Cues

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A depth cue that requires the use of only one eye. Pictorial depth cues-texture gradient, linear perspective, shading, occlusion, relative size and height. Motion parallax-occurs while objects are moving, the objects move across the retina at different rates

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Binocular Cue

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A depth cue that requires the use of both eyes. With it we can more accurately judge exact distances and very accurately judge distances within 20 feet

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Retinal Disparity

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The difference between the images projected onto each eye. The closer the object gets, the bigger the difference of what each individual eye sees. The left eye and right eye sees two completely different pictures

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Convergence

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How much your eyes cross when an object gets closer

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Ames Room

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Left side bigger than right but tiles and windows drawn to make it look the same. Room is designed as illusion to fool depth perception. A non-traditional shaped room

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Audition (the scientific name for hearing)

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It is stimulated by sound waves

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Sound Waves

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Vibrations of molecules that travels (the harder or more dense the better it travels)

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Frequency

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Determines pitch or tone (how high or low a sound seems. higher frequencies of pressure waves produce the experience of higher pitches) Pitch is measured in Hertz (Hz)

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Amplitude

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Determines loudness, the strength of a sound. (Pressure waves with greater amplitude produce the experience of louder sound) Loudness is measured in decibels (dB)

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Wave Form Energy

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Type of energy for both light energy and sound energy. Both occur in two major phases: sensation and perception. Perception itself can be divided into processes used at the beginning and end

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There are three parts to the ear

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The outer ear, middle ear, and inner ear

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Pinna

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The outer ear, which functions like a satellite dish to capture and direct the sound

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Eardrum (tympanic membrane)

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Part of the middle ear, which stretches across the inside end of the auditory canal. Waves move the eardrum, which in turn moves the three bones of the middle ear (hammer, anvil, and stirrup). These bones amplify the vibration and cause the basilar membrane to vibrate

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Cochlea

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a fluid-filled tube that is the organ of auditory transduction (like the retina of the eye) Inside the cochlea is the basilar membrane

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Basilar Membrane

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Where different frequencies of sound are coded into varying nerve impulses

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Hair Cells

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They are moved by the vibrations and trigger nerve impulses. They function in hearing the same way rods and cones do in vision-by producing the initial nerve impulses

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Frequency Theory

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Holds that higher frequencies produce higher rates of neural firing (perception of pitch corresponds to the rate of the ENTIRE basilar membrane vibrates)

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Place Theory

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Different frequencies activate different PLACES along the basilar membrane

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Nerve Deafness

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Typically occurs when the hair cells are destroyed by loud sounds. Once a hair cell is destroyed, it is gone forever. (for example, a rock band heard at close range) it may only affect certain frequencies

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Conduction Deafness

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Can result from any accident or other cause that impairs the functioning of the external ear or middle ear (For example, a broken eardrum)

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Difference in Loudness

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The two ear are used as a cue. Heads block sound, thus the amplitude of sound wave is smaller when it reaches the ear on the side of the head away from the sound source

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Onset Difference (timing difference)

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The wave will reach the two ears at slightly different times

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Somatosensation

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The body senses, including body position, touch, skin temperature, and pain.

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Kinesthetic Sense

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Registers the movement and position of the limbs. It relies on muscles, bones and tendons. Some are born with a more highly developed kinesthetic sense (increased kinesthesis=increased athletic ability)

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Vestibular Sense

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Provides information about how a person is oriented relative to gravity. It relies on an organ in the inner ear, adjacent to the cochlea, that contains three semicircular canals. If these structures are disrupted, say by infection or injury, people have a difficult time keeping their balance. Vision also helps maintain balance

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Touch

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The skin is the sensory organ. The skin protects bodies from the environment, makes crucial vitamins, triggers release of various hormones, and is also a massive sensory organ. Men and women are sensitive to touch differently (women are generally more sensitive to touch than men). Also, there are some areas that register only hot or only cold.

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Pain

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Serves to warn people of impending danger, and it is crucial to survival. Pain primarily arises when two different kinds of nerves are stimulated

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Double-pain

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Resulting from different fibers sending their messages at different speeds. The first phase, a sharp pain, occurs at the time of the injury. It is followed by a dull pain

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Endorphins

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A naturally producing substance in the brain that helps people deal with pain.

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Gate Theory

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Input from touch fibers or that which occurs during sympathetic arousal completes with input from pain receptors, closing the gate and preventing pain messages from reach the brain. Conversely, cognitive stress and anxiety can "open" the gate and increase the experience of pain (examples: Keeping calm can inhibit pain, while screaming closes the gates and increases pain)

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Smell and taste are often grouped together as the chemical senses because

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Both rely on registering the presence of specific chemicals that dissolve in water or can be vaporized

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Olfaction (scientific term for sense of smell)

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Most people are remarkably poor at identifying odors, even though they often think they are good at it. People can correctly identify only about half of 80 common scents

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Lock and Key

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Molecules have different shapes, and the olfactory receptors are built so that only molecules with particular shapes will fit in particular places on the receptors. The molecules are like keys and the receptors like locks. When the right-shaped molecule arrives as a particular receptor, it sends a signal to the brain, and people sense the odor

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Phermones

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Chemical substances that serve as a means of communication

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Gustation (scientific term for taste)

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Receptor located solely in the mouth

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Tase Buds

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Microscopic receptor cell structures mounted on the sides of the little bumps on one's tongue and on the back of the throat and cheeks. Taste buds die and are replaced, on average, every ten days

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Traditionally, the tastes of all foods have been regarded as being made up of combinations of four tastes:

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Sweet, sour, salty, and bitter tastes. In addition, another taste, called umami (savory), has been identified

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Taste preferences are

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learned, and thus cultural and even communal

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Three primary types of learning:

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Classical conditioning (S-R learning), operant conditioning (R-C learning), and observational learning

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Reflex

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An automatic, involuntary response to environmental stimuli. It usually occurs before the brain is even aware of the stimulus (for example knee-jerk reflex, moving away from painful stimuli)

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Instinct (fixed action pattern)

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An inborn pattern of behavior elicited by environmental stimuli. They are controlled by higher brain functions. The typically serve social functions (mating patterns, parenting instincts, mimicking instincts)

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Learning

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A relatively long-term change in behavior that results from experience. What is learned is almost never unlearned (you learn when you are exposed to some environmental stimuli)

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Stimulus

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A detectable environmental input before a behavior

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Non-Associative Learning

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Occurs when repeated exposure to a stimulus alters an organism's responsiveness (changes in magnitude of responses to a stimulus) This is the simplest form of learning and you are only exposed to ONE environmental stimulus

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Habituation

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(non-associative learning) occurs when repeated exposure to a stimulus decreases responsiveness-reactions to repeated, unchanging stimuli decrease (for example getting used to loud sounds or intense smells over time to where they are hardly noticed)

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Sensitization

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(non-associative learning) occurs when exposure to an intense stimulus increases responsiveness to many stimuli (for example a loud sound awakens you at night, and your heightened arousal magnifies other sounds, making them easier to notice and harder to fall back asleep)

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Associative Learning

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Involves the formation of associations among stimuli and/or behaviors and/or consequences, as in forms of conditioning. This is learning where you are exposed to MORE THAN ONE stimuli

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Classical Conditioning

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(associative learning) involves learning associations between two stimuli that precede a reflexive behavior

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Classical Conditioning

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A type of learning in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a stimulus that automatically causes a reflexive behavior. Over time, the previously neutral stimulus becomes sufficient to elicit that behavior on its own. This involves learning of automatic or reflexive responses (emotional and physiological reactions) It's sometimes called Pavlovian conditioning

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There are four components of classical conditioning:

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unconditioned stimulus (US), unconditioned response (UR), conditioned stimulus (CS), conditioned response (CR)

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Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

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Any stimulus that naturally and automatically elicits a reflexive response for an organism. For Pavlov's experiment: the food is the US-it elicits an automatic response that does not require prior learning

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Unconditioned Response (UR)

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The reflexive or automatic response elicited by the US (like the US, UR requires no prior learning) For Pavlov's experiment: the dog's salivation is the UR (US--->UR)

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Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

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An originally neutral stimulus that acquires the capacity to elicit a response through the association of repeated pairing with a US. For Pavlov's experiment: The tone is the CS. A conditioned stimulus (CS) MUST come BEFORE the unconditioned stimulus (US). For example, the bell must come before the food or else the bell would not cause salivation if it rang after the dogs received the food

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Conditioned Response (CR)

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A response that depends, or is conditional, on pairing CS with an US; one learned, the response to the US now occurs when the CS is presented alone. For Pavlov's experiment: salivation in response to the tone alone is the CR (CS--->CR) UR and CR are usually the same, the main difference is what stimulus causes each

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Classical conditioning can be applied to:

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emotional, immune system, and allergic responses as well as drug tolerance and sexual responses

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Acquisition

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In classical conditioning, the initial learning process leading to the development of the conditioned responses (the phase in which the CS is repeatedly paired with the US and an association is formed between the two)

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Extinction

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The reduction of a conditioned response after repeated non-pairing (If the CS is repeatedly presented without the US, the response will be gradually eliminated or extinguished)

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Spontaneous Recovery

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The reappearance of the conditioned response after a period of rest. What is learned is almost never unlearned, once classical conditioning has occurred the connection between the CS and the US never completely vanishes

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Generalization

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Refers to the tendency for the CR to be elicited by neutral stimuli that are similar to but not identical to the original CS. The more closely the new stimulus resembles the original CS, the stronger the response. For example: Pavlov's dogs displayed salivation to the sounds of doorbells, telephones, and clock chimes (not just the CS: a bell)

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Discrimination

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Over time, organisms are able to learn to distinguish, or discriminate, among stimuli similar to the CS and respond only to the actual stimuli (Decreased similarity=increased chance of discrimination)

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Higher Order Conditioning

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Occurs with new stimuli are associated with a conditioned stimulus (CS), and these new stimuli gain the ability to elicit the conditioned response (CR) on their own (look for obvious US and more than one CS)

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Conditioned Emotional Response (CER)

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An emotionally charged conditioned response elicited by a previously neutral stimulus. John Watson and Rosalie Rayner demonstrated how classical conditioning can produce a CER of fear and how fear can lead to a phobia

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"Little Albert"

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He was afraid (UR) of loud noises (US-as all young children are) but not animals. They paired a white rat (CS) with a loud noise (US). After a few times of them being paired together, Albert developed a phobia of rats (CR). he began whimpering and withdrawing (the CER) and tried to avoid the rat

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Phobia

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Strong, irrational, emotional reaction to some stimulation or situation (irrational fear)

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Biological Preparedness

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A built-in readiness for certain previously neutral stimuli to come to elicit particular conditioned responses. Less conditioning (shorter acquisition) is necessary to produce such learning-often times, one pairing will suffice. This applies well to food poisoning and certain phobias (snakes, spiders, the dark)

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Contrapreparedness

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A built-in disinclination (or even inability) for certain stimuli to be conditioned to elicit particular conditioned responses. For example, cars and wooden blocks do not make successful conditioned stimuli

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Placebo Effect

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Occurs when a medically inactive substance comes to exert medicinal effects through expectation. The placebo signals the probability of a future event and, thus, the animal come to expect that the placebo will lead to a particular response, which leads to a physiological change

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Compensatory Response (CR)

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A user who takes a drug in a particular setting develops a conditioned response to that place. When the user walks into the usual drug-taking setting, say the bathroom (CS), his or her body begins to compensate for the influx of drug that is soon to come. This conditioned response is the body's attempt to counteract, or dampen, the effect of the drug

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Systematic Desensitization

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A type of counterconditioning in which individuals learn to relax themselves while being exposed to stimuli that elicit fear. The procedure is based on the simple fact that you cannot be relaxed and afraid at the same time. The CS no longer elicits the CR and extinction has occurred

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Evaluative Conditioning

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The use of classical conditioning to promote consumers' positive attitudes about a product. The goal is to change people's like or evaluation of the conditioned stimulus-the product the advertisers want someone to buy-by associating this product with something or someone naturally pleasing (good-looking, famous, or well-respected individual or pleasing setting). Watson formalized the use of behavioral principles in advertising; the use of "sex appeal" to sell products stems from his ideas

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Taste Aversion

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A classically conditioned avoidance of a certain food or taste. This may occur when animals or people have an unpleasant experience during or after they eat, or even just taste, a particular food or beverage (leading them to try and avoid that item). This type of classical conditioning usually involves learning after only one pairing of the CS and US. Generally the US is a vomit-inducing agent, and the CS is a previously neutral stimulus that was paired with it, such as the sight or smell of the food. Both UR and CR is nausea or vomiting

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Operant Conditioning (R-C learning)

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(associative learning) involves learning associations between behaviors and their outcomes or consequences. It's the process by which a stimulus and response become associated with the consequences of making the response (learning in which responses come to be controlled by their consequences). Operant conditioning usually involves voluntary, nonreflexive behavior

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Law of Effect

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Edward Thorndike found that: Actions that subsequently lead to a "satisfying state of affairs" are more likely to be repeated

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Operant conditioning involves

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An association between a stimulus, the response to the stimulus (a behavior), and its consequence

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Reinforcement

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The process by which consequences of a response lead to an increase in the likelihood that the response will occur again (when the stimulus is present)

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Reinforcer

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Any object or event that comes after a response and that strengthens the likelihood of its recurrence (when the stimulus is present)

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Positive Reinforcement

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A desired reinforcer is presented AFTER a response, thereby increasing the likelihood of a recurrence of that response in the future.

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Premack Principle

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States that a preferred activity can be used to reinforce a non-preferred activity.High priority behaviors can be used to increase low-priority behaviors. For example: telling a kid that if they eat their broccoli, they make have ice cream for dessert. It's important that the person's highest preferences be clearly identified

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Negative Reinforcement

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The removal of an unpleasant event or circumstance following a behavior that increases the likelihood of that behavior in the future. For example: if a rat is being shocked in its cage and the shock stops when it presses a bar, then bar pressing it negatively reinforced

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Punishment

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The process by which an unpleasant object or event is presented after a behavior, which decreases the likelihood of that behavior in the futre

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Positive Punishment

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Occurs when a behavior leads to an undesired consequence in the form of an aversive stimulus, thereby decreasing the likelihood of that behavior in the future. For example: Spanking

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Negative Punishment

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Occurs when a behavior leads to the removal of a pleasant event or circumstance, also decreasing the likelihood of that behavior in the future. For example: Grounded, take away TV or phone, no dessert. Consequences of the behavior is the removal of something desirable

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The biggest problem with punishment?

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It teaches kids to manipulate behavior using aggression

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Punishment is more effective when used in combination with reinforcement because:

answer

punishment doesn't convey information about which behavior should be exhibited in place of the undesired, punished behavior

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Primary Reinforcers

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Events or objects that are inherently reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs. For example: Food (any kind of food), water, shelter, physical contact, relief from pain. Most reinforcers in today's society are NOT primary

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Secondary Reinforcers

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Learned reinforcers and do not inherently satisfy a physical need. For example: Attention, praise, money, good grades, a promotion. This is conditioned reinforcement that requires learning and experience to become reinforcing

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Behavior Modification

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A technique that brings about therapeutic change in behavior through the use of secondary reinforcers. For example: participants in a program earn tokens that can be traded for tangible rewards or for privileges

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Immediate Reinforcement

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Reinforcement given immediately after the desired behavior

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Delayed Behavior

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Reinforcement given in some period of time after the desired behavior is exhibited. Does not promote learning in animals but often does in humans. Humans often work hard for delayed reinforcement. For example: students who study hard in college to land a good job or get into graduate school

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Generalization

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In operant conditioning, it's the ability to transfer a learned S-R association to a new stimulus that is similar to the original one, making the same response to it that led to reinforcement previously

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Discrimination

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In operant conditioning, it is the ability to engage in a learned behavior in response to a particular stimulus but not in response to a similar one. Discrimination depends on the ability to distinguish among the different situations in which a stimulus might occur

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Extinction

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In operant conditioning, when someone has learned a behavior through operant conditioning and the reinforcement stops, initially there is an increase in responding

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Shaping

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Gradual process of reinforcing an organism for behavior that gets closer and closer to the behavior one ultimately wishes to condition. It must be done in steps. For example: Dog training and potty training

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Continuous Reinforcement

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When an organism is reinforced for each desired response

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Partial Reinforcement

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When reinforcement occurs only intermittently (sometimes) for the desired response

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One advantage of partial reinforcement schedule:

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It is more resistant to extinction

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Interval Schedules

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Partial reinforcement schedules based on time

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Fixed Interval Schedule

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The organism receives reinforcement for a response emitted after a fixed interval of time. For example: exam schedule in this class

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Variable Interval Schedule

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The interval between reinforcements is variable-based on an average over time, but unpredictable. For example: extra credit in this class. When graphed is creates a scalloped pattern

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Ratio Schedules

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Based on a specified number of the desired responses. Reinforcement is given after that number of responses is emitted

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Fixed Ratio Schedules

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Reinforcement is given after a fixed number of responses. For example: bonus for every 5 cars sold. When graphed it creates a steplike pattern

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Variable Ratio Schedules

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Present reinforcement at a variable rate, again based on averages but unpredictable. For example: Playing slot machines or the lottery. One never knows when the reinforcement comes. This is also called the "gambling reinforcement schedule". It is the most resistant to extinction and tends to get the highest response rate

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Similarities between classical and operant conditioning:

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1. Both involve extinction, generalization, and discrimination 2. In both, response acquisition is affected by moderating factors, especially time 3. For both, biological and cognitive factor influence how easily certain behaviors can be learned

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Difference between classical and operant conditioning:

answer

1. Classical conditioning involves learning associations between different stimuli, while operant conditioning involves learning associations between responses and their consequences 2. Classically conditioned responses are automatic and reflexive while operant responses are voluntary

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The best evidence that the two kinds of conditioning are truly different:

answer

different neural systems are used in each

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Social Learning Theory (Observational Learning)

answer

Developed by a group of psychologists led by Albert Bandura, it emphasizes the fact that much learning occurs in a social context

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Observational (social) Learning

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(associative learning) involves learning associations through observation rather than direct experience (either via classical or operant conditioning) For example: Learning what not to do by watching the punishment of a sibiling

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Modeling

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A process in which someone learns new behaviors by observing others. These other people serve as modes, presenting a behavior to be imitated

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One of Bandura's famous studies

answer

Used children and a Bobo doll. One group watched an adult beat up a Bobo doll, one group watched the adult ignore the Bobo doll, one group didn't see an adult at all. The group who saw the adult beat up a Bobo doll were more aggressive towards the Bobo doll. Findings indicate that watching aggression by a live person has more of an impact than does watching a video of a person exhibiting the same behaviors (for example a violent movie)

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Bandura focused on 4 features that promote observation learning:

answer

1. Attention: we will only learn behaviors from models we focus our attention on 2. Retention: we will only perform behaviors when we can remember how they were modeled 3. Reproduction: we will only imitate those modeled behaviors that we have the ability to reproduce 4. Motivation: we will not imitate behaviors that we are unmotivated to perform

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We often learn fears (phobias) through observation

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From observing the reactions of others even though we've never had unpleasant experiences in these contexts

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Several characteristics of models can make learning through observation more effective:

answer

If the model is an expert, is engaging, is good-looking, has high status, and is socially powerful

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