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scientific method

answer

1. observing some phenomenon 2. formulating hypothesis and prediction 3. testing through empirical research 4. drawing conclusions 5. evaluating the theory (evaluations of conclusions drawn) IMPORTANT: you must be open-minded (OK with results that disprove your hypothesis) and remove emotions and personal bias from experiment design and implementation (p.26)

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psychology's research methods

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1. observation 2. survey and interview 3. case study 4. correlational research 5. experimental research

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science

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- an organized way of gathering and analyzing evidence about the natural world - defined by HOW it investigates - p. 26

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variable

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anything that can change in research (p.27)

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theory

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- a broad idea or set of closely related ideas that attempts to explain observations and to make predictions about future observations - ambiguity: do NOT confuse with hypothesis, which is a smaller and testable component of a theory (proving a hypothesis helps prove a theory) (p.27)

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hypothesis

answer

- an educated guess that derives logically from a theory; a prediction that can be tested - ambiguity: do NOT confuse with theory, which is too broad to test (p.27) - TESTABLE - in order to test a theory, you must state a hypothesis - a properly designed hypothesis will test a theory by predicting the changes in the dependent variable that are caused by changes in the independent variable

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empirical research

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- collecting and analyzing data - research that operates from the ideological position that questions about human behavior can be answered only through controlled, systematic observations in the real world - data needed to support logical views - theories made not what you believe, but what you can prove

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operational definition

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- a definition that provides an objective description of how a variable is going to mbe measured and observed in a particular study (purpose is to eliminate the fuzziness in defining psychological phenomena and provides a common language to facilitate communication among researchers - a specific description of what will be studied - makes in possible for an experiment to be repeated by another researcher - an operational definition must be created/stated in order to test a hypothesis - EXAMPLE: Love is how many times per day that you hug (it is a silly definition of love, but you can measure it!) - p. 27

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Duchenne smiling

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- genuine smiling--the kind that creates little wrings around the out corner of the eyes

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data

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- all the information a researcher collects when carrying out a study - p. 28

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self-determination theory

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- people are likely to feel fulfilled when their lives meet three important needs: relatedness (warm relations with others), autonomy (independence), and competence (mastering new skills)--all three are intrinsic rewards

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extrinsic rewards

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- benefits and/or recognition received from someone else - E = EXTERNAL - p. 28

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intrinsic rewards

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- a natural reward associated with performing a task or activity for its own sake - I = INSIDE - p. 28

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basic research

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- research carried out to increase understanding of fundamental principles; the results, many times, have no direct or immediate commercial benefits (p.29)

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replicated

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- repeated (by other scientists) - if research can be replicated, in can be considered reliable - p. 29

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meta-analysis

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- a method that allows researchers to combine the results of several different studies on a similar topic in order to establish the strength of an effect - p.29

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descriptive research

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- research that determines the basic dimension of a phenomenon, defining what it is, how often it occurs, and so on (p.29) - incudes: surveys, case studies and interviews - allows researchers to get a sense of a subject of interest, but it cannot answer questions about how and why things are the way they are

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survey research

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- a research method involving the use of questionaires and/or statistical surveys to gather data about people and their thoughts and behaviors (p.30) - includes telephone interviews, online polls, paper and pencil questionaires, etc. - communicates WITH people (not collecting data about people) - ISSUE 1: some people lie or are not completely honest whe answering questions about themselves - ISSUE 2: some participants attempt to provide answers that they believe will please the researcher

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response rate

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- ratio of number of people who answered the survey divided by the number of people in the sample (p.30)

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case study or case history

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- an in-depth look at a single individual (p.30) - example: conducting a series of interviews over a year with an anxiety-disordered student - cannot prove a causal relationship - cannot be repeated - p. 30

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correlational research

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- research that examines the relationships between variables, whose purpose is to examine whether and how two variables change together (NOT causal) - application: can show links, RELATIONSHIPS between variables, etc. - application: can state ice cream sales linked to increased violence (p.32) - not limited to real-world settings

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normal curve

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- a model of distribution (p.32)

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variance

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- a measure of how far a set of numbers is spread out (p.33)

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correlation coefficient

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- the strength (degree) of the relationship between two variables - strongest relationship = greatest distance form zero (either postivie or negative - weaskest relationship = closest to 0 (if something is statistically insignificant but occur at the same time, you are looking for an incredibly small number that is not zero) - no relationship (do not occur at the same time) = 0 - positive and negative = shows direction of the relationship - negative = inverserse relationship (as one variable increases, the other decreases) - positive = direct relationship (as one variable increases, the other also increases) - 1.00 correlation coefficient = predict with perfect accuracy ... positive and negative still influence the direction of relationship (p.32) - number does not represent a direct percentage - APPLICATION: strongest relation is the negative 0.9 because it is the greatest distance from 0. The positive and negative 0.4 numbers have an equally STRONG relationship. +0.4 0.0 -0.4 -0.9 - correlation does NOT equal causation - correlation DOES show a relationship (accurate to say information is linked, associated, there is a relationship between, etc.)

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scatter plot

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- a graph in which the values of two variables are plotted along two axes, the pattern of the resulting points revealing any correlation present. (p.33)

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line of best fit / regression line

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- a straight line drawn through the center of a group of data points plotted on a scatter plot, shows how variables are correlated (p.33)

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outlier

answer

- an extreme piece of data that skews the results (p.33)

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positive skew

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- outliers cause distribution of data (p.33) - a curve or distribution of scores that has extreme scores above the mean that are atypical of the majority of scores - p. 33

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negative skew

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- a curve or distribution of scores that has extreme scores below the mean that are atypical of the majority of scores - p. 33

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third variable problem or confounds

answer

- the circumstance where a variable that has not been measured accounts for the relationship between two other variables. Third variables are also known as confounds. (p.33)

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experience sampling method (ESM)

answer

- effective study of emotional development and the "roller coaster of emotions" requires research tools (participants carry beepers) - used by correlational researches

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event-contingent responding

answer

- asks participants to complete a report every time they do a certain activity (Examples: every time they drink alcohol or have sex) - used by correlational researchers

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random assignment

answer

- researchers' assignment of participants to groups by chance, to reduce the likelihood that an experiment's results will be due to preexisting differences between groups - ensures groups had equal and balanced composition (not biased) - exteremly important aspect of experimental design (p.36)

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longitudinal design

answer

- a special kind of systematic observation, used by correlational researchers, that involves obtaining measures of the variables of interest in multiple waves over time (p.34) - example: nun study in textbook (followed up with nuns repeatedly over the course of 20 years)

question

experimental research

answer

- gathering primary data by selecting matched groups of subjects, giving them different treatments, controlling related factors, and checking for differences in group responses

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experiment

answer

- a carefully regulated procedure in which the researcher manipulates one or more variables that are believed to influence some other variable (p.36)

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independent variable

answer

- a manipulated experimental factor; the variable that the experimenter changes to see what its effects are (p.36) - it is not getting measured in the experiment - it is believed to influence the other variable - Skinner's Reserach: food pellet

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confederate

answer

- a person who is given a role to play in a study so that the social context can be manipulated (p.37)

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dependent variable

answer

- the outcome; the factor that can change in an experiment in response to changes in the independent variable - essentially what you are measuring (b/c it DEPENDS on other variables) (p.37) - Skinner's Research: the amount of pecking

question

experimental group

answer

- the participants in an experiment who receive the drug or other treatment under the study--that is, those who are exposed to the change the independent variable represents (p.37) - group taht is subjected to manipulation of the independent variable

question

control group

answer

the particpants in an experiment who are as much like the experimental group as possible and who are treated in every way like the experimetnal group except for a manipulated factor, the independent variable (p.37) - group that is not subjected to manipulation of the independent variable

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reliability

answer

- the extent to which a test yields a consistent, reproductive measure of performance (p.37)

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validity

answer

- the extent to which a test measure what it is intended to measure (p.37)

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external validity

answer

- the degree to which an experimental design actually relfects the real-world issues it is supposed to address - application: the experiment is only valid in a lab setting (p.37) - Skinner's Research: the majority of reserach was conducted in a lab with animals--criticized external validity - naturalistic observation provides the highest degree of external validity, because the data is collected in "real world" settings

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internal validity

answer

- the degree to which changes in the dependent variable are due to the manipulation of the independent variable - application: there is something wrong with the design of the scientific experiment (something should have been considered that wasn't, etc.) (p.38)

question

experimenter bias

answer

- occurs when the experimenter's expectations influence the outcome of the research (p.38) - the tendency to provide subtle clues as to the true nature of an experiment - an exerimenter treating one group of participants differently than another (based on gender, race, appearance, etc.) - p. 38

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demand characteristics

answer

- any aspects of a study that communicate to the participants how the experimenter wants them to behave (p.38) - example: smiling/frowning based on how people answer

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research participant bias

answer

- occurs when the behavior of research participants during the experiment is influenced by how they think they are supposed to behave or their expectations about what is happening to them (p.39)

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hindsight bias

answer

- the tendency to report falsely, after the fact, that we accurately predicted an outcome (p.39)

question

placebo effect

answer

- occurs when particpants' expectation, rather than the experimental treatment, produce an outcome (p.39) - people feel better simply because they believe they are receiving medication - can cause medication to "kick in" faster than it chemically becomes active

question

placebo

answer

- in a drug study, a harmless substance that has no physiological effect, given to particpatns in a control group so that they are treated indentically to the experimental group except for the active agent (p.39)

question

blind experiment

answer

- an experiment in which the subjects do not know whether they are members of the experimental group or the control group - conducted in an effort to rule out experimenter bias

question

double-blind experiment

answer

- an experimental design in which neither the experimenter nor the participants are aware of which participants are in the experimental group and which are in the control group until the results are calculated - conducted in an effort to rule out experimenter bias - p.40

question

applied research

answer

- research that is applied, accessing and using some part of the research community's accumulated theories, knowledge, methods, and techniques, for a client driven purpose (p.40-41)

question

population

answer

- the entire group about which the investigator wants to draw conclusions (p.41)

question

group-matching

answer

- ensures that experimental/control groups are equivalent (sex, race, age, etc.) to avoid flawed results due to confounds (p.41)

question

sample

answer

- the subset of the population chosen by the investigator for study - a group of participants observed in a research study (research subjects) - p. 41

question

sampling

answer

- the act or process of selecting a sample for testing, analyzing, etc. (p.41-42)

question

random sample

answer

- a sample that gives every member of the population an equal chance of being selected - NOT the same thing as random assignment (which is about making sure experimental and control groups are equivalent) - p.42

question

representative sample

answer

- a subset of the population that accurately reflects the members of the entire population (p.42) - not everyone in a population must be included in order to obtain a majority opinion

question

stratified sampling

answer

- the population is divided into subpopultions (strata) and random samples are taken from each stratum (p.42)

question

social desirability

answer

- tendency of respondents to reply in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others (p.42)

question

sampling error

answer

- the error that arises as a result of taking a sample from a population rather than using the whole population. (p.42)

question

Hawthorne effect

answer

- the tendency of individuals to perform better simply because of being singled out and made to feel important (p.42-43)

question

naturalistic observation

answer

- the observation of behavior in a real-world setting without distrubing the environment - examples: observing students in classes, observing teachers in classes, observing kids at the mall, etc. (p.43) - researchers cannot intervene in naturalistic observation (would influence the results) - limited to real-world settings

question

field experiment

answer

- a test or trial conducted in the real world (p.43)

question

descriptive statistics

answer

- mathematical procedures that are used to describe and summarize sets of data in a meaningful way which includes measures of central tendency and measures of dispersion - includes: mean, median, mode, range and standard deviation (p.43) - measures of central tendency: mean, median and mode - measures of dispersion: range and standard deviation

question

laboratory experiment

answer

- a test or trial conducted in the lab (p.43)

question

anonymity

answer

-concealing the identities of participants in all documents resulting from the research (p.43)

question

mean

answer

- a measure of central tendency that is the average for a sample (p.45) - adding up participants scores and dividing by the number of participants

question

median

answer

- a measure of central tendency that is the middle score in a sample (p.45)

question

mode

answer

- a measure of central tendency that is the most common score in a sample (p.45)

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range

answer

- a measure of dispersion that is the difference between the highest and lowest scores (p.46)

question

standard deviation

answer

- a measure of dispersion that tells us how much scores in a sample differ from the mean of the sample - more sophisticated version of descriptive statistics - takes squared deviation from the mean - application: frequently results in a normal bell curve (p.46)

question

z score

answer

- a standard score indicates who many standard deviations an observation or datum is above or below the mean (p.46)

question

inferential statistics

answer

- mathematical methods that are used to indicate whether results for a sample are likely to generalize to a population (p.47) - learn whether the data collected supports the hypothesis - over-generalization = a problem, especially with a small sample size --> the subjects may share a characteristic that does not occur across the chosen population

question

p value

answer

- the probability of obtaining a test statistic at least as extreme as the one that was actually observed (p. 47)

question

statistical significance

answer

- a result that is not likely to occur randomly, but rather is likely to be attributable to a specific cause - .05 correlation is the minimum level of probability that scientists will accept for concluding that observed difference are real and not due to chance (p.47)

question

.05

answer

- considered to be the minimum level of probability that scientists will accept for concluding that observed differences are real and not due to chance - p. 47

question

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

answer

- a group of peers in a clinical setting that examines a research proposal to insure patient safety and addresses the ethics of the proposed study (p.48) - determines if proposed studies meet ethical guidelines - APA (American Psychological Association) publishes ethical guidelines

question

coercion

answer

- the intimidation or convincing of a victim to compel the individual to do some act against his or her will by the use of psychological pressure, physical force, or threats. (p.53)

question

ethical guidelines

answer

- suggested rules for acting responsibly and morally when conducting research or in clinical practice 4 in Book: 1. informed consent, 2. confidentiality, 3. debriefing, 4. deception - (Confidentiality, Voluntary participation, Withdrawal rights, Informed consent, Deception, Debriefing)

question

informed consent

answer

- permission granted in the knowledge of the possible consequences, typically that which is given by a patient to a doctor for treatment with full knowledge of the possible risks and benefits. (p.53) - APA (American Psychological Association) publishes ethical guidelines - participants need to be informed of the nature of the procedures before consenting

question

confidentiality

answer

- concerned with who has the right of access to the data provided by the participants (p. 30) - cannot share the names of participants with people outside the research group, sometimes within the research group - data from a study should be stored without the names attached - p. 49

question

debriefing

answer

- used to refer to the process whereby justified; deception has been used by the researchers, and, following ethical research practices, respondents are then spoken to after the study ends to explain the deception to them and try to undo any harm that may have been caused by the deception. (p.53) - the ethical obligation to tell participants about the study one the participation in the study is completed - deception is ethically allowed if the aniticipated benefits outweigh the anticipated costs, and if the participants are debriefed

question

deception

answer

- the act of leading others to believe something known to be untrue - allowed under certain conditions (benefit to society, etc.) and that debriefing will occur

question

reality TV on ethical guidelines

answer

- does not meet ethical guidelines for psychological research: - participants do not typically give informed consent - participants are often subjected to psychological and/or physical risks - participants are often deceived

question

thinking critically about psychological research

answer

- avoid overgeneralizing based on little information - distinguish between group results and individual needs - look for answers beyond a single story - avoid attributing causes where none have been found - consider the source of psychological information

question

James Pennebaker

answer

- writing about one's traumatic experiences is positively related to finding eployement after being laid of work - research demonstrated that the findings of a correlational study can be the impetus for experimental research that determines causation - researched connections between traumatic life events, expressive writing, health and work performance

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