CH6- Qualitative Approaches to Research – Flashcards
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1) Descriptive research 2) Correlational 3) Quasi-experimental
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What are the types of quantitative research?
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1) phenomenological 2) grounded theory 3) ethnographic 4) historical 5) philosophical 6) critical social theory methodology
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What are the types of qualitative research?
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1) foundational inquiry 2) philosophical analyses 3) ethical analyses
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what are the 3 factors within philosophical?
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1) nonintrusive, often prolonged, observation 2) Conversational interviews 3) Validation
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What are some data collection techniques?
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1) Open-ended questions 2) Careful listening 3) Follow-up questions 4) Helping person to be reflective about their experiences 5) Requesting elaboration
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What are some aspects of conversational interviews?
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When making an interpretation of observations or what was said, the informant is asked if the interpretation is accurate .
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What is validation?
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data analysis
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term? read the participants narratives
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data analysis
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term? extract significant statements
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data analysis
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term? formulate meanings for each of these significant statements
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-repeat this process -integrate the resulting themes -reduced these themes to an essential structure -return to the participants to conduct further interviews
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other factors of data analysis?
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-credibility & validity of qualitative research
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Trustworthiness describes the:
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-By using quotes to illustrate the richness of the data & to establish a relationship between the themes identified and the data
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How does the researcher promote trustworthiness?
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-has to do with description & explanation -whether or not the explanation fits a given description--ex: is the explanation credible? -cross-check: member checks, audit trails, inter-rater reliabilities -remember generalizability is not the same in quantitative studies
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Factors to consider with validity/trustworthiness?
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-phenomenology -grounded theory -ethnography -case study also, community-based participatory research
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What are the 4 commonly used qualitative research methods?
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b/c qualitative methods focus on the whole of human experience & the meaning ascribed by individuals living the experience, these methods extend understanding of health beyond traditional measures of isolated concepts to include the complexity of the human health experience as it is occurring in everyday living.
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why is qualitative research well suited to study the human experience of health?
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- guide nursing practice -contribute to instrument development -build nursing theory
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What are 3 uses of qualitative research methods in nursing science? FIG6-1 pg. 111
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-is a process of learning & constructing the meaning of human experience through intensive dialogue with persons who are living the experience.
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What is the phenomenological method?
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is to understand the meaning of the experiences as it is lived by the participant
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what is the researchers goal with the phenomenological method?
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-the lived experience.
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What is the focus of the phenomenological method?
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-a term used to refer to the focus on living through events & circumstances (pre lingual) rather than thinking about these events & circumstances (conceptualized experience)
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what is the lived experience?
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-means that the method shapes the way we think about the phenomenon of interest and the way we would go about answering a research question
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what does the phrase "structures the study" mean?
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-the question that guides phenomenological research always ask about some human experience -it guides the researcher to ask the participant about some past or present experience.
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What is the research question within the phenomenological research method?
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-it is bracketed.
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When using the phenomenological method, what happens to the researcher's perspective?
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-this means that the researcher identifies their own personal biases about the phenomenon of interest to clarify how personal experience & beliefs may color what is heard & reported -the researcher must set aside their personal biases--to bracket them--when engaged with the participants
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What does bracketed mean?
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-the participants were selected purposively & that members of the sample either are living the experience the researcher studies or have lived the experience in their past
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What is the sample selection within a phenomenological research?
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-written or oral data -may ask the participant to do a written response -may schedule an interview & record the interaction with the participant
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what is the data gathering method within a phenomenological research study?
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-data saturation
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what concept guides decisions regarding how many interviews are enough and when enough data has been collected. term?
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-analysis of the participants description to the researcher's synthesis of all participants descriptions
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What is data analysis within the phenomenological research study like?
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-every time a story is told, it changes for the participant. -the participant may sincerely feel that the story as it was recorded is not the story as it is now
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what is a challenging aspect of any qualitative method?
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-when studying a new topic about which little is known
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EBP & phenomenological research correlation? -when is phenomenological research an important approach for accumulating evidence?
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-research question -samples of participants words -researchers interpretation of those words -to the final synthesis that elaborates the lived experience as a narrative
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What is the process of steps when using the phenomenological method?
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-an inductive approach that uses a systematic set of procedures to arrive at theory about basic social processes.
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what is the grounded theory method?
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-theory that is constructed inductively from a base of observations of the world as it is lived by a selected group of people
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what is grounded theory?
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-b/c it describes a research approach to construct theory where no theory exits, or in situations where existing theory fails to provide evidence to explain a set of circumstances
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why is grounded theory widely used by social scientists today?
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true -investigators from different disciplines use grounded theory to study the same phenomenon from their varying perspectives
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true or false? the grounded theory is used in many disciplines
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-is the development of formal theories spanning many disciplines that accurately reflect the cases from which they were derived
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what is the objective of grounded theory?
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-when they are interested in social processes from the perspective of human interactions or patterns of action - and interaction between & among various types of social units
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-identifying the phenomenon when do researchers use the grounded theory method?
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designed to indicate change occurring over time as social reality gets negotiated
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-identifying the phenomenon the basic social process is sometimes expressed in the form of a gerund, which is?
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-those that address basic social processes that shape human behavior -a statement or a broad question that permits in-depth explanation of the phenomenon
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-structuring the study what type of research questions are for the grounded theory method?
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NOPE, the researcher brings SOME knowledge of the literature to the study this allows theory to emerge directly from data and to reflect the contextual values that are integral to the social processes being studies
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-structuring the study does the grounded theory study bring an exhaustive literature review to the study?
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-involves choosing participants who are experiencing the circumstance & selecting events & incidents related to the social process under investigation
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-structuring the study what is the sample selection like within a grounded theory study?
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-data is collected through interviews & through skilled observations of individuals interacting in a social setting -interviews: recorded & transcribed -observations: recorded as field notes -use open-ended questions
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-data gathering: how is data collected in the grounded theory method?
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TRUE -the process requires systematic data collection & documentation using field notes & transcribed interviews
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-data analysis: true or false? a major feature of the grounded theory method is that data collection & data analysis occur simultaneously.
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-is used to select experiences that will help the researcher to test hunches and ideas and to gather complete information about developing concepts
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-data analysis: what is theoretical sampling?
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a process of continuously comparing data as they are acquired during research with the grounded theory method
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-data analysis: what is constant comparative method?
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-descriptive language & diagrams of the research process
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-describing the findings: What are used as evidence to document the researchers procedures for moving from the raw data to the new theory?
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-meaning people, race, or cultural group
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what does the Greek term ethnos mean?
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-focuses on scientific description & interpretation of cultural or social groups and systems -a method that scientifically describes cultural groups.
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what is the ethnographic method?
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is to understand the native's view of their world or the emic view
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what is the goal of the ethnographer?
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-the native's or insider's view of the world
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what is emic view?
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-an outsiders view of another's world
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what is etic view?
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-when the researcher uses quantitative analyses of behavior
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how does the researcher obtain an emic view and etic view?
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>enter the world of the study participants to: -watch what happens -listen to what is said -ask questions -collect whatever data is available
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what does the ethnographic approach require of the researcher?
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-a qualitative research approach design to produce cultural theory
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what is ethnography/ethnographic method?
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from a long term study of a very complex culture to a short-term study of a phenomenon within subunits of cultures
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-identifying the phenomenon: the phenomenon under investigation in an ethnographic study varies in scope from what to what?
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-questions are asked about "life-ways" or particular patterns of behavior within the social context of a culture or subculture
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-structuring the study: what are the research questions like in an ethnographic study?
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-the system of knowledge & linguistic expressions used by social groups that allows the researcher to interpret or make sense of the world
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-structuring the study: in an ethnographic research method, what does culture mean?
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-questions that concern how cultural knowledge, norms, values, & other contextual variables influence people's health experiences
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-structuring the study: what does ethnographic nursing studies address?
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-is that of an interpreter entering an alien world & attempting to make sense of that world from the insiders point of view
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-structuring the study: when using the ethnographic method, what is the researcher's perspective?
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TRUE
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-structuring the study: true or false? like phenomenologists & grounded theorists, ethnographers make their own beliefs explicit & bracket, or set aside, their personal biases as they seek to understand the worldview of others.
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-the ethnographer selects a cultural group that is living the phenomenon under investigation
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-structuring the study: what is the sample selection like within the ethnographic method?
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-from general informants & from key informants
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-structuring the study: from who does the researcher gather information in a ethnographic study?
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-are individuals who have special knowledge, status, or communication skills, and who are willing to teach the ethnographer about the phenomenon
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what are key informants?
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-immersion in the study setting -use of participant observation -use of interview of informants -interpretation by the researcher of cultural patterns
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-data gathering: what does ethnographic data gathering involve?
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-involves face to face interviewing with data collection & analysis taking place in the natural setting
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-data gathering: what does ethnographic research in nursing involve?
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-fieldwork -other techniques may include obtaining life histories & collecting material items reflective of the culture -ex. photographs & films of the informants in their world can be used as data sources
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-data gathering: what is a major focus of ethnographic method regarding data collection?
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-TRUE
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-data analysis: true or false? like the grounded theory method, ethnographic data are collected & analyzed simultaneously?
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-domains are symbolic categories that include the smaller categories of an ethnographic study
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-data analysis: analysis begins with a search for domains, which are?
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-field notes of observations -interview transcriptions -artifacts such as photographs
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-describing the findings: what are the types of data/evidence gathered in ethnographic studies?
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-is the description of the scene, the parameters or boundaries of the research group, & the overt characteristics of group members
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what is the first level description?
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-about how cultural knowledge, norms, values, & other contextual variables influence the health experience of a particular patient population in a specific setting
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evidence generated by ethnographic studies will answer questions about what?
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-the study of a selected contemporary phenomenon over time to provide an in-depth description of essential dimensions & processes of phenomenon -is about studying the peculiarities & the commonalities of a specific case, irrespective of the actual strategies for data collection & analysis that are used to explore the research questions -is rooted in sociology -has a complex history & many definitions
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what is the case study method?
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-TRUE -but are defined by their focus on uncovering an individual case and, in some instances, identifying patterns in variables that are consistent across a set of cases
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true or false? case studies include quantitative and/or qualitative data
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-research that is undertaken to gain a better understanding of the essential nature of the case
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what is an intrinsic case study?
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-is used when researchers are pursuing insight into an issue or want to challenge some generalization
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what is an instrumental case study?
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-the researcher uses an iterative process of "growing questions" in the field -that is, as data are collected to address these questions, it is expected that other questions will emerge & serve as guides to the researcher to untangle the complex, context-laden story within the case
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-although researchers pose questions to begin discussion, the initial questions are never all-inclusive; rather they are?
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-the research is focused on the perspective of the researcher
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when researcher begins with questions developed around suspected issues of importance, they are said to have an "etic" focus, which means?
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-selecting cases/participants that may offer the best opportunities for learning
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-sample selection in the case study method involves
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>using: -interviews -field observations -document reviews -any other methods that accumulate evidence for describing or explaining the complexity of the case -the development of a data gather plan to guide the progress of the study
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-data gathering: how are case study data gathered?
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data analysis is often concurrent with data gathering & description of findings as the narrative in the case develops.
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-data analysis/describing findings:
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-researchers spending extended time on site, personally in contact with activities & operations of the case, and reflecting & revising meanings of what transpires
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what is the qualitative case study characterized by?
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-records data -searches for patterns -links data from multiple sources -develops preliminary thoughts regarding the meaning of collected data
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-data analysis/describing findings: what the case study researcher does?
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TRUE
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true or false? case studies are a way of providing in-depth evidence-based discussion of clinical topics that can be used to guide practice.
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-A qualitative method that systematically accesses the voice of a community to plan context-appropriate action -a type of action research -grouped within the tradition of critical science
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What is community-based participatory research (CBPR)?
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TRUE
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true or false: investigators who use CBPR recognize that engaging members of a study population as active & equal participants in all phases of the research, is crucial for the research process to be a means of facilitating change.
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change or action
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What is the intended "end-product" of CBPR?
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TRUE
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true or false? although qualitative in its approach to research, community-based participatory research leads to an action component in which a nursing intervention is implemented & evaluated for its effectiveness in a specific patient population
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-protection of human subjects is always the most important aspect of any scientific investigation -this demand exists for both quantitative & qualitative research approaches
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ISSUES IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH: -ethics:
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-some researchers using methods that rely on participant observation may believe that consent is not always possible or necessary
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ISSUES IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH: -naturalistic setting:
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-planning for questioning & observation emerges over the time of the study. -thus it is difficult to inform the participant precisely of all potential threats before he or she agrees to participate
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ISSUES IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH: -emergent nature of design:
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-relationships developed between the researcher & participant may blur the focus of the interaction -in practice the nurse has caring-healing intentions -in research the nurse intends to "get the picture" from the perspective of the participant
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ISSUES IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH: -researcher-participant interaction
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-the researcher is the study instrument, collecting data & interpreting the participants reality -the responsibility to establish rigor in data collection & data analysis requires that the researcher acknowledge any personal bias & strive to interpret data in a way that accurately reflects the participants point of view
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ISSUES IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH: -researcher as instrument:
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-credibility -auditability -fittingness
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what are the 3 criteria for judging scientific rigor in the qualitative approach?
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-steps in qualitative research to ensure accuracy, validity, or soundness of data -truth of findings as judged by participants & others within the discipline
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credibility:
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-accountability as judged by the adequacy of information leading the reader from the research question and raw data through various steps of analysis to the interpretation of findings -the researchers development of research process in a qualitative study that allows a researcher or reader to follow the thinking or conclusions of the researcher
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auditability:
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-faithfulness to everyday reality of the participants, described in enough detail so that others in the discipline can evaluate importance for their own practice, research, and theory development -answers the following questions: are the findings applicable outside the study situation? are the results meaningful to the individuals not involved in the research
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fittingness:
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-using two pieces of information to locate a third, unique finding -the expansion of research methods in a single study or multiple studies to enhance diversity, enrich understanding, and accomplish specific goals -term used in surveying & navigation
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triangulation
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-triangulation offers an opportunity for researchers to increase the strength & consistency of evidence provided by the use of both qualitative & quantitative research methods -the combination of stories with numbers (qualitative & quantitative research approaches) through use of triangulation may provide the most complete picture of the phenomenon being studied and, therefore, the best evidence for guiding practice
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evidence based practice and the integration of triangulation
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-is a quantitatively-oriented aggregation of qualitative findings that are topical or thematic summaries or surveys of data
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qualitative meta-summary:
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-integrations that are approximately equal to the sum of parts, or the sum of findings across reports in a target domain of research
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meta-summary
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-is an interpretive integration of qualitative findings that are interpretive syntheses of data, including the phenomenologies, ethnographers, grounded theories, and other integrated & coherent descriptions or explanations of phenomena, events, or cases that are the hallmarks of qualitative research.
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qualitative meta-synthesis:
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-integrates qualitative research findings on a topic and is based on comparative analysis and interpretative synthesis
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meta-synthesis:
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select experiences to help the researcher test ideas and gather complete information about developing concepts
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theoretical sampling:
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insiders view
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emic:
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outsiders view
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etic:
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no new data emerging
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data saturation:
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identify personal biases about the phenomenon
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bracketed:
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symbolic categories that include smaller categories
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domains:
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individuals who have special knowledge, status, or communication skills and who are willing to teach the ethnographer about the phenomenon
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key informants:
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ethnographic
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uses "Emic" and "etic" views of subjects' worlds
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grounded theory
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research questions focus on basic social processes that shape behavior
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phenomenological
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central meanings arise from subjects' descriptions of lived experience
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phenomenological
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focuses on a dimension of day to day experiences
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grounded theory
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uses theoretical sampling to analyze data
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case study
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studies the peculiarities & commonalities of a specific case
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ethnographic
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discovers "domains" to analyze data
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phenomenological
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states that individuals' history is a dimension of the present
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ethnographic
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attempts to discover underlying social forces that shape human behavior
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case study
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attention is given to a single case
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ethnographic
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interviews "key informants"
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ethnographic
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focuses on describing cultural groups
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grounded theory
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uses constant comparative method during data analysis
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phenomenological
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researcher "brackets" personal bias or perspective
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case study
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can include quantitative and/or qualitative data
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-phenomenological -grounded theory -ethnographic
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subjects are currently experiencing a circumstance (3 methods)
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-phenomenological -grounded theory -ethnographic
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collects remembered information from subjects (3 methods)
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ethnographic
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involves "field work"
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ethnographic phenomenological
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may use photographs to describe current behavioral practices (2 methods)
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grounded theory
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may NOT include exhaustive literature search
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grounded theory
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uses an inductive approach to understanding basic social processes
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true
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true or false? qualitative research focuses on the whole human experience in naturalistic settings
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true
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true or false? external criticism in historical research refers to the authenticity of data sources
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false
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true or false? in qualitative research, one would expect the number of subjects participating to be as large as those usually found in quantitative studies.
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true
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true or false? the researcher is viewed as the major instrument for data collection
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false
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true or false? qualitative studies strive to eliminate extraneous variables.
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-data repetition
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to what does the term saturation in qualitative research refer?
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-questionaries sent out to subjects -observation of subjects in naturalistic settings -interviews ALL OF THE ABOVE!!!!!
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data in qualitative research are often collected by which of the following procedures?
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-grounded theory
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the qualitative method that includes an INDUCTIVE approach using a systematic set of procedures to create a theory about basic social processes is known as which of the following?
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-phenomenology
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what is the qualitative method that attempts to construct the meaning of the lived experience of human phenomena?
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-ethnography
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what qualitative research method would be most appropriate for studying the impact of culture on the health behaviors of urban Hispanic youth?
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-case study
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what qualitative method would be most appropriate for studying a family's experience with cystic fibrosis?
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-phenomenology -grounded theory -case study
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what qualitative method would you use to study the spread of HIV/AIDS in an urban area? (3 methods)
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-theoretical sampling but what is used with grounded theory are: -bracketing -axial coding -open coding
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which data analysis process is NOT used with grounded theory methodology?
