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CHAPTER 11 Expert Knowledge:

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excellent knowledge about the content of a specific discipline.

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Pedagogical Content knowledge

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knowledge about HOW to TEACH a specific discipline

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Cognitive approach VS Computational approach in Math instruction

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Cognitive approach - emphasizes developing concept Computational approach - emphasizes speed & automaticity

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Cognitive VS Social constructivist approach in Reading instruction

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Cognitive approach - emphasizes decoding & comprehending words Social Constructivist approach - stresses meaning as "socially negotiated." Dependent on social context and purpose for reading

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CHAPTER 12 Bloom's taxonomy

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Developed by Benjamin Bloom; classifies educational objectives into 3 domains -- cognitive, affective, and psychomotor

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--Cognitive domain

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1. Knowledge 2. Comprehension 3. Application 4. Analysis 5. Synthesis 6. Evaluation

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Teacher centered lesson planning VS Learner centered lesson planning

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Teacher- Centered Planning : creates behavioral objectives, analyzing tasks, & developing instructional taxonomies. EX. Lecturing, explaining Learner- Centered Planning: emphasize students reflective nature. Motivation and emotional factors influence classroom.

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Problem- based learning

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real-life problem solving. Teacher acts as guide helping student monitor their own problem solving efforts

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Essential Questions

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questions that reflect heart of curriculum

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Discover Learning

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learning where students constructs understanding on their own.

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Direct Instruction

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teacher-focused on academic activity. Emphasizes teacher direction and control.

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Mastery learning

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learning one topic thoroughly before moving on to a more difficult one.

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Using Teacher to improve understanding

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1. Evaluate which topic are worth understanding 2. Choose what to understand about topic 3. Pay attention to how students show understanding 4. Consider how teachers & students assess learning 5. Reflect on how students & teachers learn together

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CHAPTER 13 Perspectives on motivation

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Behavioral - emphasizes external rewards and punishments to influence students motivation Humanistic - stresses student's capacity for personal growth Cognitive - students' thoughts guide their motivation Social - motive to be securely connected with other people

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Extrinsic motivation

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external motivation to obtain something

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Intrinsic motivation

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internal motvation

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--Types of intrinsic motivation

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self-determination & personal choice. optimal (happy) experiences and "flow" interest engaging environment & self-responsiblity

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Attribution theory

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individuals are motivated to understand causes of their own behavior and performance

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--strategies to change attribution

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Help students to... 1. concentrate on task without worrying about failing 2. cope with failures by discovering mistake and finding a new approach 3. attribute failures to lack of effort not lack of ability

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Mindset--Fixed VS Growth

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Fixed - believe that qualities are set in stone and cannot change Growth - believe qualities can change and improve with effort

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Mastery motivation

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becoming cognitively engaged and self-motivated

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--Mastery orientation

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those who often instruct themselves to pay attention and to think carefully

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--Helpless orientation

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feels trapped when confronting difficult challenges

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--Performance orientation

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focus on winning rather than achievement outcome

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Rule- example strategy

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1. Define concept 2. Clarify terms in definition 3. Give examples to illustrate key features or characteristics 4. Provide additional examples

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Teaching for transer

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Near - similar from initial learning situation Far - different from initial learning situation Low-road - unconscious transfer High-road - is conscious and effortful *forward-reaching: one learns something and abstracts it in preparation for application elsewhere *backward-reaching: one finds oneself in a problem situation, abstracts key characteristics from the situation, and reaches backward into one's experience for matches

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Convergent thinking

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thinking with aim of producing one correct answer

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Divergent thinking

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thinking with aim of producing many answers to same question

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Premack Principle

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principle that a high-probability serves as a reinforcer for a low-probability activity

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Algorithms

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strategies that guarantee a solution to a problem

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Heuristics

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strategies that suggest a solution to a problem Doesn't ensure success

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Metacognition

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thinking about thinking

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Memory storage and strategies

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* Short-term - limited capacity; retains for 30 seconds w/o rehearsal. * Sensory memory - retains info for an instant * Working memory - remember as your working; active memory system * Long-term memory - unlimited capacity over a long period of time *Strategies: mnemonics (rhymes, acronyms, keywords), music or songs, narrative, imagery, mind map, chunking, classifying, rehearsing, elaboration

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Behavioral approaches to learning

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Classical conditioning Operant conditioning: form of learning in which consequences of behavior produce changes in the probability that the behavior will occur -skinner Classical conditioning: a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response. -pavlov

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Constructivism

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learner-centered approach --> growth of knowledge/understanding through teachers guidance but not their direct instruction

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Social Constructivist approach

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*approach that emphasizes the social contexts of learning and idea that knowledge is mutually built and constructed Ex: Vygotsky

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Cognitive Constructivist approach

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*approach that emphasizes the child's construction of understanding and knowledge Ex: Piaget

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Information Processing approach

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*Cognitive approach that people use to manipulate info, monitor it, and strategize about it. *process information through attention, memory, and other cognitive process

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Social Cognitive approach

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-social and cognitive factors, as well as behavior, play important roles in learning -Self-efficacy: The belief that one can master a situation and produce positive outcomes -Observational learning: occurs when a person observes and imitates someone else's behavior. *Bandura: reciprocal determinism --> behaviors environment personal/cognitive factor

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Positive reinforcement

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-Reinforcement increases probability of behavior -Positive reinforcement: reward stimulus (praise)

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Punishment and Negative reinforcement

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-Negative reinforcement: removal of unpleasant stimulus (chores or yelling) -Punishment: decrease probability of behavior -taking away something good (timeout --> taking away free time)

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Quantitative vs qualitative research

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Quantitative: research that is based on numbers and statistics Qualitative: words (not numbers)

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Experimental research

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Determination of the cause of a certain behavior; experiment --> manipulated fact

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Independent versus dependent variable

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Independent: factor manipulated Dependent: factor measured

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Control group versus experimental group

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Control: group with no manipulation Experimental: group manipulated

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Action research

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Research done in the classroom to solve classroom or school problems in order to develop better teaching methods

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Case study research

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In-depth look at an individual/group over a period of time

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1. Identify at least four strategies for helping students transfer their knowledge and understanding to other areas of the curriculum or beyond the classroom. After you list three strategies, provide examples for how you could implement each of your selected strategies in the classroom.

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1 - Teach information that will help students be success in life. Employers value: oral communication, interpersonal, and teamwork skills. *Do a group project and ask the students to reflect on how they worked as a group. Also, have the group present their findings to the class. 2 - Give students opportunities for real world learning. *Invite people in to talk about there careers *Relevant visits (teaching biology and focusing on plant cells, bring a microscope outside or to a park; learning about moments in history - visit a museum) 3 - Teach for depth of understanding and meaning *When teaching multiplication, teach the students about what it means to multiple (not just memorize their facts). *When teaching about the Civil War, explain the reasons why it took place and why it turned out the way it did. Do not have the students simply memorize the "whys", but have them also interact with the information 4 - Use prompts to have students begin self-explanation *Creative writing prompts: I believe... *Explanation section of homework. Give problems, but also ask the students to explain their reasoning. *Interact with history content through a certain project and have a section where they reflect on why they believe an event happened the way it did.

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2. Identify three benefits of cooperative learning, as stated in your text, and three drawbacks from this approach. Also state two conditions that when present, according to research, increase for effectiveness of this strategy for improving student achievement.

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*Benefits* 1 - Increased interdependence 2 - Enhance motivation to learn 3 - Improve learning by teaching materials to other peers *Drawbacks* 1 - Some students prefer to work alone 2 - distraction: socialization 3 - a few students may do the majority/all of the work *Beneficial conditions* 1 - Groups rewards are generated: recognition or reward for the group members --> sense of interest 2 - Individuals held accountable for work --> method of evaluation for a student's individual contribution (quiz, report, or evaluation worksheet)

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3. List 5 effective strategies, from your text, for improving and maximizing student attention in the classroom. Provide a classroom example for each strategy.

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1 - Use cues or gestures to signal that something is important *Repeating something over again *Bolding something on a PowerPoint *Verbally saying "this is important" 2 - Make learning interesting and engaging *Relate the topics to student experiences and interests; the topic of addition - involving baseballs or ballet shoes *Do surprising activities - have the kids get up and run around to start a topic on exercising 3 - Use media and technology effectively *Don't have lots of writing on a power point *Don't read straight off the power point *Use videos and pictures 4 - Make learning active *field trip to a museum or to a park *games --> practice math facts 5 - Do not overload students with information *Take breaks *Be aware of when a break is needed *Be conscious of how much information is being discussed during the lesson throughout the day

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4. List and provide a short definition of the six objectives within the cognitive domain of Bloom's taxonomy (use the revised taxonomy).

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*educational objectives 1 - Remember: retrieve relevant knowledge from long-term memory 2 - Understand: construct meaning from instruction (interpreting, exemplifying, classifying, summarizing, inferring, comparing, and explaining) 3 - Apply: carry out or use a procedure in a given situation 4 - Analyze: break material into its component parts and determine how the parts relate to one another and to the overall structure or purpose 5 - Evaluate: make judgements based on criteria and standards 6 - Create: put elements together to form a coherent or functional whole; reorganize elements into a new pattern or structure

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5. List and briefly explain 4 strategies for how would you go about motivating a student who does not care about learning (strategies for any grade level)?

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1 - Work on developing a positive relationship with the student (help them with their work and be patient) 2 - Make school more intrinsically interesting (find out what interests the student) 3 - teach strategies for making academic work more enjoyable (help them to take pride in their work) 4 - consider a mentor (pick a student they will respect)

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6. Provide examples (4) of student behaviors that only require minor interventions in the classroom and list four examples of useful intervention strategies for minor classroom management issues.

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1 - Student is talking to their neighbor while the teacher is talking. 2 - Student is passing a note to their friend. 3 - A student is playing with a toy at their desk during class time. 4 - Leave seat without permission. ******************************************* 1 - Nonverbal cues (eye contact, snapping, hand gesture, head shake) 2 - Move closer to the students 3 - Provide needed instruction for the assignment they should be doing 4 - Redirect behavior back to what they should be doing 5 - Give the student a choice (behave appropriately or get a negative consequence)

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Withiness

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teacher shows the students that he or she is aware of what is happening

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Classroom management styles

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*Authoritative: encourage independent thinking, but provides monitoring *Authoritarian: restrictive, focus on control rather than learning *Importance of authoritative: self-regulated learners, less bullying, more self-reliant

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Strategies for minor and moderate behavior interventions

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*MINOR* -nonverbal cues -redirect behavior -give them a choice -walk closer -ask the student to stop *MODERATE* -withhold a privilege or a desired activity -isolate or remove the student -impose a penalty

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Main points --> aggressive situations

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*remain calm *be sure every is safe *bystanders leave the scene *talk one-on-one to those involved *listen and don't prejudge

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Positive Behavior Intervention Support (PBIS)

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*preventative and responsive approaches that may be effectively implemented with all students in a classroom and intensified to support small groups or a few individual students

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Purpose of standardized testing

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-find students strengths and weaknesses -provide information for planning and instruction -provide information about student's progress and placement -contribute to accountability -help in program evaluation

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Criteria for choosing a standardized test for students

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validity reliability fairness

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validity

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extent that a test measure the students' performance and whether those inferences are appropriate; measures what it is supposed to measure

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reliability

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extent that a test produces consistent/reproducible results that are stable, dependable, and free from errors

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fairness

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equal opportunity to demonstrate their knowledge and skill

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three types of validity

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-content: test's ability to measure content knowledge -criterion: test's ability to predict student's performance by other criteria and measurements -construct: extent to which the test can measure construct (unobservable traits/characteristics of a person - intelligence, anxiety, or learning style)

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aptitude test vs achievement test

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-aptitude: prediction of a student's ability with further education and training (EX: SAT) -achievement: measure what the student has learned or mastered (EX: specific subject tests, diagnostic test)

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percentile rank scores

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the percentage of a distribution that lies at or below the score

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raw scores

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number of items the student answered correctly on the test

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diagnostic tests

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in-depth evaluation of specific area of learning

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norm-referenced tests

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standardized tests in which a student's score is interpreted by comparing it with how others (the norm group) performed

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criterion referenced tests

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standardized tests in which the student's performance is compared with established criteria

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Criticisms and uses of standards-based tests

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*USES* -Improved student performance - More teaching time - Higher student expectations - Identification of poor-performing schools/teachers - Improved confidence in schools *CRITICISMS* -"Dumbing down" and more -emphasis on rote memorization - Less time for problem-solving and critical thinking skills - Teachers "teaching to the test" - Discrimination against low-SES and ethnic minority children

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authentic assessment

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means evaluating a student's knowledge or skill in a context that approximates the real world or real life as closely as possible. EX: dance, arts, paper, project, presentation, experiments, portfolios

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formative and summative assessment

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form: assessment given during the course of instruction sum: assessment given after instruction in order to document student's performance

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performance assessment

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Performance assessments are evaluated when specific criteria (behaviors) are performed by the student. ex: dance, theater, art, music, etc.

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portfolio assessment (benefits or and types: growth/best work)

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*DEFINE* consists of evaluating a systematic and organized collection of a student's work that demonstrates the student's skills and accomplishments *BENEFITS* *TYPES* 1 - growth: produced over an extended time frame to reveal the student's progress in regards to learning targets 2 - best-work: showcases the student's most outstanding work

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Purposes of grading

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*Motivational *Administrative: help to determine class rank, graduation, and promotion in classes *Informational: summary judgement of student performance *Guidance: help make appropriate class choices and meet students' needs

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