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Test Answers on Social Psychology – Flashcards

Q: demand characteristics

features of an experiment that seem to \"demand\" a certain response

Charlotte Small

7 July 2022

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Social Psychology

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a scientific investigation of how the thoughts, feelings, and behavior of individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others

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behaviorism

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an emphasis on explaining observable behavior in terms of reinforcement schedules

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demand characteristics

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features of an experiment that seem to "demand" a certain response

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experimental method

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intentional manipulation of independent variables in order to investigate effects on one or more dependent variables

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experimental realism

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psychological impact of that manipulations in an experiment

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experimental effect

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effect that is produced or influenced by clues to the hypothesis under examination, inadvertently given by the experimenter

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external validity

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similarity between circumstances surrounding an experiment and circumstances encountered in everyday life

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internal validity

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psychological impact of manipulations in an experiment

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levels of explanation

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thoery of leadership in which effective leadership rests on the ability of the leader to develop good-quality personalized exchange relationships with individual members

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metatheory

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set of interrelated concepts and principles concerning which theories or types of theory are appropriate

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mundane realism

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similarity between circumstances surrounding an experiment and circumstances encountered in everyday life

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neo-behaviorism

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one who attempts to explain observable behavior in terms of contextual factors and unobservable intervening constructs such as beliefs, feelings, and motives

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radical behaviorism

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one who explains observable behavior in terms of reinforcement schedules, without recourse to any intervening unobservable (cognitive) constructs

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reductionism

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a phenomenon in terms of language an concepts of lower level analysis, usually with a loss of explanatory power

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subject effects

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effects that are not spontaneous, owing to demand characteristics and/or participants wishing to please the experimenter

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accentuation principle

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categorization accentuates perceived similarities within and differences between groups on dimensions that people believe are correlated with the categorization. The effect is amplified where the categorization and/or dimension had subjective importance, relevance, or value

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motivated tactician

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a model of social cognition that characterizes people as having multiple cognitive strategies available, which they choose among on the basis of personal goals, motives, and needs

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affect-infusion model

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cognition is infused with affect sich that social judgements reflect current mood

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normative models

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ideal processes for making accurate social inferences

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anchoring and adjustment

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a cognitive short-cut in which inferences are tied to initial standards or schemas

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paired distinctiveness

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illusory correlation in which items are seen as belonging together because they share some unusual feature

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attribution

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the process of assigning a cause to our own behavior, and that of others

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peripheral traits

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traits that have an insignificant influence on the configuration of final impressions, in Asch's configural model of impression formation

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availability heuristic

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a cognitive short-cut in which the frequency or likelihood of an event is based on how quickly instances or associations come to mind

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personal constructs

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idiosyncratic and personal ways of characterizing other people

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primacy

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an order of presentation effect in which earlier presented information has a disproportionate influence on social cognition

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prototype

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cognitive representation of typical/ideal defining features of a category

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recency

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an order of presentation effect in which later presented information has a disproportionate influence on social cognition

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subtyping

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schema change as a consequence of schema inconsistent information, causing the formation of sub-categories

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vividness

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an intrinsic property of a stimulus on its owen that makes it stand out and attract attention

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base rate information

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pallid, factual, statistical information about an entire class of events

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behavioral decision theory

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set of normative models (ideal processes) for making accurate social inferences

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illusory correlation

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cognitive exaggeration of the degree of co-occurrence of two stimuli or events, or the perception of a co-occurrence where non exists

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implicit personality theories

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idiosyncratic and personal ways of characterizing other people and explaining their behavior

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bookkeeping

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gradual schema change through the accumulation of bits of schema-inconsistent information

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central traits

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traits that have a disproportionate influence on the configuration of final impressions, Asch's configural model of impression formation

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cognitive consistency

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a model os social categorization in which people try to reduce inconsistency among their cognitions, because they find inconsistency unpleasant

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cognitive miser

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a model of social cognition that characterizes people as using the least complex and demanding cognitions that are able to produce generally adaptive behaviors

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configural model

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Asch's Gestalt-based model of impression formation, in which central traits play a disproportionate role configuring the final impression

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conversion

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sudden schema change as a consequence of gradual accumulation of schema inconsistent information

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exemplars

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specific instance sof a member of a category

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fuzzy sets

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categories are considered to be fuzzy sets of features organized around a prototype

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Gestalt psychology

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perspective in which the whole influences constituent parts rather than vice versa

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heuristics

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cognitive short-cuts that provide adequately accurate inferences for most of us most of the time

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regression

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tendency for initial observations of instances from a category to be more extreme than subsequent observations

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representativeness heuristic

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a cognitive short0cut in which instances are assigned to categories or types on the basis of overall similarity or resemblance to the category

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schema

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cognitive structure that represents knowledge about a concept or type of stimulus, including its attributes and the relations among those attributes

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script

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a schema about an event

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social cognition

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cognitive processes and structures that influence and are influenced by social behavior

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social judge ability

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perception of whether it is socially acceptable to judge a specific target

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social neuroscience

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the exploration of the neurological underpinnings of the processes traditionally examined by social psychology

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actor observer effect

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tendency to attribute our own behaviors externally and others' behaviors internally

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attributional style

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an individual (personality) predisposition to make a certain type of causal attribution for behavior

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belief in a just world

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belief that the world i just and predictable place where food things happen to food people and bad things happen to bad people

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causal schematic

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experience-based beliefs about how certain types of cause interact to produce effect

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consensus information

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information about the extent to which other people react in the same way to a stimulus X

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consistency information

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information about the extent to which a behavior Y always co-occurs with a stimulus X

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correspondent inference

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causal attribution of behavior to underlying dispositions

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covariation model

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Kelley's theory of causal attribution- people assign the cause of behavior to the factor that covaries most closely with the behavior

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discounting

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if there is no consistent relationship between a specific cause and a specific behavior, that cause is discounted in favor of some other cause

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distinctiveness information

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information about whether a person's reaction occurs only with one stimulus, or is a common reaction to many stimuli

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external attribution

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assigning the cause of our own of others' behavior to external or environmental factors

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false consensus effect

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seeing our own behavior as being more typical than it really is

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fundamental attribution error

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bias in attributing another's behavior more to internal than to situational causes

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hedonic relevance

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refers to behavior that has important direct consequences for self

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illusion of control

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belief that we have more control over our world than we really do

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intergroup attribution

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process of assigning the cause of one's own or others' behavior to group membership

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internal attribution

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process of assigning the cause of our own or others' behavior to internal of dispositional factors

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non-common effects

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effects of behavior that are relatively exclusive to that behavior rather than other behaviors

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over-justification effect

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in the absence of obvious external determinants of our behavior, we assume that we freely choose the behavior because we enjoy it

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personalism

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behavior that appears to be directly intended to benefit or harm oneself rather than others

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self-handicapping

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publicly making advance external attributions for our anticipated failure or poor performance in a forthcoming event

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self-perception theory

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Bem's idea that we gain knowledge of ourselves only by making self-attributions: for example, we infer our own attitudes from our own behavior

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self-serving bias

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attributional distortions that protect of enhance self-esteem or the self-concept

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ultimate attribution error

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tendency to attribute bad outgroup or good ingroup behavior internally, and to attribute good outgroup and bad ingroup behavior externally

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acquiescent response sets

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tendency to agree with items in an attitude questionnaire. This leads to a ambiguity in interpretation if a high score on an attitude questionnaire can be obtained only by agreeing with all or most items

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priming

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activation of accessible categories or schema in memory that influence how we process new information

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attitude

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a relatively enduring organization of beliefs feelings and behavioral tendencies towards socially significant objects, groups, events, or symbols. A general feeling or evaluation - positive or negative- about some person, object, or issue

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attitude formation

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the process of forming our atitudes mainly from our own experiences, the influence of others, and our emotional reactions

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automatic activation

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according to Fazio, attitudes that have a strong evaluative link to situational cues are more likely to come automatically to mind from memory

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balance theory

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according to Heider, people prefer attitudes that are consistent with each other, over those that re inconsistent. A person tries to maintain consistency in attitudes to, and relationships with, other people, and elements of the environment

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Bogus pipeline technique

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a measurement technique that leads people to believe that a lie detector can monitor their emotional responses , thus measuring their true attitudes

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relative homogeneity effect

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tendency to see outgroup members as all the same, and ingroup members as more differentiated

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self-efficacy

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expectations that we have about our capacity to succeed in particular tasks

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sociocognitive model

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attitude theory highlighting an evaluative component Knowledge of an object is represented in memory along with a summary of how to appraise it

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unobtrusive measures

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observational approaches that neither intrude on the processes being studied nor cause people to behave unnaturally

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cognitive consistency theories

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a group of attitude theories stressing that people try to maintain internal consistency, order, and agreement among their various cognitions

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expectancy-value model

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direct experience with an attitude object informs a person how much that object should be liked or disliked in the future

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mere exposure effect

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repeated exposure to an object results in greater attraction to that object

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multiple-act criterion

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term for a general behavioral index based on an average or combination of several specific behaviors

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terror management theory

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the notion that the most fundmental human motivation is to reduce the terror of the inevitability of death. Self-esteem may be centrally implicated in effective terror management

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theory of planned behavior

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modification by Azjen of the theory of reasoned action. It suggests that predicting a behavior from an attitude measure is improved if people believe they have control over that behavior

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theory of reasoned action

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Fishbein and Azjen's model of the links between attitude and behavior. A major feature is the proposition that the best way to predict a behavior is to ask whether the person intends to do it

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three-component attitude model

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an attitude consists of cognitive, affective, and behavioral components. This threefold division had an ancient heritage, stressing thought, feeling, and action as basic to human experience

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two-component attitude model

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and attitude consists of a mental readiness to act. It also guides evaluative (judgmental) responses

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unidimensionality

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a Guttman scale is cumulative: that is, agreement with the highest-scoring item implies agreement with all lower-scoring items

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one-component attitude model

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an attitude consists of affect towards or evaluation of an object

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audience

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intended target of a persuasive communication

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cognitive dissonance

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state of psychological tension, produced by simultaneously having two opposing cognitions. People are motivated to reduce the tension, often by changing or rejecting one of the cognitions. festinger proposed that we seek harmony in our attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors, and try to reduce tension from inconsistency among these elements

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effort justification

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a special case of cognitive dissonance: inconsistency is experienced when a person makes a considerable effort to achieve a modest goal

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elaboration likelihood model

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Petty and Cacioppo's model of attitude change: when people attend to a message carefully, they use a central route to process it; otherwise they use a peripheral route. This model competes with the heuristic-systematic model

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forewarning effects

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advance knowledge that one is to be the target of a persuasion attempt. Forewarning often produces resistance to persuasion

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Heuristic-systematic model

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Chaiken's model of attitude change: when people attednd toa message carefully, they use systematic processing; otherwise they process information by using heuristics, or 'mental short-cuts'. This model competes with the elaboration likelihood model

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induced compliance

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a special case of cognitive dissonance: inconsistencies are experienced when a person is persuaded to behave in a way that is contrary to an attitude

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inoculation

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a way of making people resistant to persuasion. By providing them with a diluted counterargument, they can build up effective refutations to a later, stronger argument

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post-decisional conflict

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the dissonance associated with behaving in a counter-attitudinal way. dissonance can be reduced by bringing the attitude into line with the behavior

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reactance

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Brehm's theory that people try to protect their freedom to act. When they perceive that this freedom has been curtailed, they will act to regain it.

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reciprocity principle

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the law of doing unto others as they do to you. it can refer to an attempt to gain compliance by first doing someone a favor, or to mutual aggression or mutual attraction

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self-affirmation theory

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the theory that people reduce the impact of threat to their self concept by focusing on and affirming their competence in some other area

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BIRGing

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Basking in reflected glory - that is, namedropping to link yourself with desirable people or groups and thus improve other people's impression of you

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depersonalization

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the perception and treatment of self and others not as unique individual persons but as prototypical embodiments of a social group

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impression management

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people's use of various strategies to get other people to view them in a positive light

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looking-glass self

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the self derived from seeing ourselves as others see us

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metacontrast principle

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the prototype of a group is that position within the group that has the largest ratio of differences to ingroup positions and differences to outgroup positions

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regulatory focus theory

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a promotion focus causes people to be approach-oriented in constructing a sense of self; a prevention focus causes people to be more cautious and avoidant in constructing a sense of self

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self-categorization theory

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Turner and associates' theory of how the process of categorizing oneself as a group member produces social identity and group and intergroup behaviors

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self-discrepancy theory

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Higgins' theory about the consequences of making actual-ideal and actual-ought self comparisons that reveal self discrepancies

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self-evaluation maintenance model

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people who are constrained to make esteem-damaging upward comparisons can underplay or deny similarity to the target, or they can withdraw from their relationship with the target

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self-monitoring

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carefully controlling how we present ourselves. There are situational differences and individual differences in self-monitoring

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self-presentation

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a deliberate effort to act in ways that create a particular impression, usually favorable, of ourselves

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self-regulation

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strategies that we use to match our behavior to an ideal or ought standard

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self-verification

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seeking out information that verifies and confirms what we already know about ourselves

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social comparison theory

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comparing our behaviors and opinions with those of others in order to establish the correct or socially approved way of thinking and behaving

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social identity

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that part of the self-concept that derives from our membership of social groups

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social identity theory

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theory of group membership and intergroup relations based on self-categorization, social comparison, and the construction of a shared self-definition in terms of ingroup-defining properties

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symbolic interactionism

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theory of how the self emerges from human interaction, which involves people trading symbols (through language and gesture) that are usually consensual, and represent abstract properties rather than concrete objects

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autokinesis

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optical illusion in which a pinpoint of light shining in complete darkness appears to move about

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conformity

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deep-seated, private, and enduring change in behavior and attitudes due to group pressure

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dual-process dependency model

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general model of social influence in which two separate processes operate - dependency on others for social approval and for information about reality

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foot-in-the-door tactic

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multiple-request technique to gain compliance, in which the focal request is preceded by a smaller request that is bound to be accepted

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informational influence

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an influence to accept information from another as evidence about reality

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low-ball tactic

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technique for inducing compliance in which a person who agrees to a request still feels committed after finding that there are hidden costs

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minority influence

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social influence processes whereby numerical or power minorities change the attitudes of the majority

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normative influence

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and influence to conform with the positive expectation of others. to gain social approval or to avoid social disapproval

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reference group

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Kelley's term for a group thats is psychologically significant for our behavior and attitudes

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compliance

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superficial, public, and transitory change in behavior and expressed attitudes in response to requests, coercion, or group pressure

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conversion effect

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when minority influence brings about a sudden and dramatic internal and private change in the attitudes of a majority

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door-in-the-face tactic

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multiple-request technique to gain compliance, in which the focal request is preceded by a larger request that is bound to be refused

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genetic model

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Moscovici's early focus on how social conflict between minority and majority can change the attitudes and behaviors of the majority

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ingratiation

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strategic attempt to get someone to like you in order to obtain compliance with a request

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referent informational influence

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pressure to conform with a group norm that defines oneself as a group member

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audience effect

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impact on individual task performance of the presence of others

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cohesiveness

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the property of a group that affectively binds people, as group members, to one another and to the group as a whole, giving the group a sense of solidarity and oneness

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contingency theory

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theories of leadership that consider the leadership effectiveness of particular behaviors or behavioral styles to be contingent on the nature of the leadership situation

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coordination loss

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deterioration is group performance compared with individual performance, due to problems in coordinating behavior

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drive theory

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Zajonc's theory that te physical presence of members of the same species instinctively causes arousal that motivates performance of habitual behavior patterns

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free rider effect

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gaining the benefits of group membership by avoiding costly obligations of membership and by allowing other members to incur those costs

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idiosyncrasy credit

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Hollander's transactional theory, that followers reward leaders for achieving group goals by allowing them to be relatively idiosyncratic

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production blocking

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reduction in individual creativity and productivity in brainstorming groups due to interruptions and turn taking

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risky shift

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tendency for group discussion to produce group decisions that are more risky than the mean of members' pre-discussion opinions, but only if the pre-discussion mean already favored risk

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cultural values theory

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the view that people in groups use members' opinions about the position valued in the wider culture, and then adjust their views in that direction for social approval reasons

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distraction-conflict theory

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the physical presence of members of the same species causes drive because people are distracting and produce conflict between attending to the task and attending the the audience

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evaluation apprehension model

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the argument that physical presence of members of the same species cause drive because people have learned to be apprehensive about being evaluated

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great person theory

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perspective on leadership that attributes effective leadership to innate or acquired individual characteristics

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group polarization

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tendency for a group discussion to produce extreme group decisions than the mean of members' pre-discussion opinions, in the direction favored by the mean

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groupthink

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a mode of thinking i highly cohesive groups in which the desire to reach unanimous agreement overrides the motivation to adopt proper rational decision-making procedures

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mere presence

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refers to an entirely passive and unresponsive audience that is only physically present

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persuasive arguments theory

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view that people in groups are persuaded by novel information that supports their initial position, and this become more extreme in their endorsement of their initial position

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Ringelmann effect

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individual effort on a task diminishes as group size increases

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situational control

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Fiedler's classifications of task characteristics in terms of how much control effective task performance requires

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social compensation

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increased effort on a collective task to compensate for other group members' actual, perceived, and anticipated lack of effort or ability

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social decision schemes

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explicit or implicit decision'making rules that relate individual opinions to a final group decision

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social facilitation

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an improvement in the performance of well-learned easy tasks and a deterioration in the performance of poorly learned, difficult tasks in the mere presence of members of the same species

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social impact

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the effect that other people have on our attitudes and behaviors, usually as a consequence of factors such as group size and temporal and physical immediacy

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social loafing

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a reduction in individual effort when working on a collective task (one in which our outputs are pooled with those of other group members) compared with working either alone or on actively (our outputs are not pooled)

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task-oriented leader

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a leader who is concerned more with getting the job done than with workers' feelings and relationships

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transactive memory

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group members have a shared memory for who within the group remembers what and is the expert on what

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collective behavior

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the behavior of people en masse - such as in a crowd, protest, or riot

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cognitive alternatives

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belief that the status quo is unstable and illegitimate, and that social competition with the dominant group is the appropriate strategy to improve social identity

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contact hypothesis

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the view that bringing members of opposing social groups together will improve intergroup relations and reduce prejudice and discrimination

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deindividuation

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process whereby people lose their sense of socialized individual identity and engage in unsocialized, often antisocial, behaviors

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egoistic relative deprivation

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a feeling of personally having less than we feel we are entitled to, relative to our aspirations or to other individuals

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emergent norm theory

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collective behavior is regulated by norms based on distinctive behavior that arises in the initially normless crowd

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ethnocentrism

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evaluative preference for all aspects of our own group relative to other groups

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fraternalistic relative deprivation

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sense that our group had less than it is entitled to, relative to its aspirations or to other groups

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intergroup behavior

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behavior among individuals that is regulated by those individuals' awareness of and identification with different social groups

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intergroup differentiation

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behavior that emphasizes differences between our own group and other groups

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minimal group paradigm

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experimental methodology to investigate the effect of social categorization alone on behavior

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prisoner's dilemma

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two-person game in which both parties are torn between competition and cooperation and, depending on mutual choices, both can win or both can lose

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realistic conflict theory

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Sherif's theory of intergroup conflict that explains intergroup behavior in terms of the nature of goal relations between groups

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relative deprivation

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a sense of having less than we feel entitled to

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relative homogeneity effect

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tendency to see outgroup members as all the same, and ingroup members as more differentiated

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social change belief system

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belief that intergroup boundaries are impermeable. Therefore, a lower status individual can improve social identity only by challenging the legitimacy of the higher-status group's position

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social mobility belief system

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belief that intergroup boundaries are permeable. This, it is possible for someone to pass from a lower-status into a higher-status group to improve social identity

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superordinate goals

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goals that both groups desire but that can be achieved only by both groups cooperating

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altruism

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a special form of helping behavior, sometimes costly, that shows concern for fellow human beings and is performed without expectation of personal gain

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bystander-calculus model

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in attending to an emergency, the bystander calculates the perceived costs and benefits of providing help compared with those associated with not helping

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bystander intervention

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this occurs when an individual breaks out of the role of a bystander and helps another person in an emergency

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diffusion of responsibility

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tendency of an individual to assume that others will take responsibility (as a result, no one does). This is a hypothesized cause of the bystander effect

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empathetic concern

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an element in Batson's theory of helping behavior. In contrast to personal distrust (which may lead us to flee from the situation), it includes feelings of warmth, being soft-hearted, and having compassion for a person in need

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empathy costs of not helping

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Piliavin's view that failing to help can cause distress to a bystander who empathizes with a victim's plight

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fear of social blunders

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that dread of acting inappropriately or of making a foolish mistake witnessed by others. The desire to avoid ridicule inhibits effective responses to an emergency by members of a group

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just-world hypothesis

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according to Lerner, people need to believe that the world is a just place where they get what they deserve. As evidence of undeserved suffering undermines this belief, people may conclude that victims deserve their fate

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learning by vicarious experience

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acquiring a behavior after observing that another person was rewarded for it

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personal costs of not helping

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Piliavin's view that not helping a victim in distress can be costly to a bystander (e.g. experiencing blame)

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prosocial behavior

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acts that are positively valued by society

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social learning theory

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the view championed by Bandura that human social behavior is not innate but learned from appropriate models

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social responsibility norm

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the idea that we should help people who are dependent and in need. It is contradicted by another norm that discourages interfering in other people's lives

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affiliative behavior

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behaviors which promote group cohesion (friendly/positive gestures), e.g. grooming, touching, and hugging.

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companionate love

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the caring and affection for another person that usually arises from sharing time together

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comparison level

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a standard that develops over time, allowing us to judge whether a new relationship is profitable or not

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cost-reward ratio

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tenet of social exchange theory, according to which liking for another is determined by calculating what it will cost to be reinforced by that person

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distributive justice

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the fairness of the outcome of a decision

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equity theory

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a special case of social exchange theory that defines a relationship as equitable when the ratio of inputs to outcomes is seen to be the same by both partners

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gain-loss hypothesis

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paradox of liking people more if they initially dislike us and then later likes us; and of liking them less if the sequence is reversed

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minimax strategy

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in relating to others, we try to minimize the costs and maximize the rewards that accrue

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passion love

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state of intense absorption in another person involving physiological arousal

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proximity

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the factor of living close by i known to play an important role in the early stages of forming a friendship

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reinforcement affect model

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model of attraction which postulates that we like people who are around when we experience a positive feeling (which itself is reinforcing

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relationship dissolution model

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Duck's proposal of the sequence through which most long-term relationships proceed if they finally break down

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three factor theory of love

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Hatfield and Walster distinguished three components of what we label 'love': a cultural concept of love, and appropriate person to love and emotional arousal

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question

Social Psychology

answer

a scientific investigation of how the thoughts, feelings, and behavior of individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others

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behaviorism

answer

an emphasis on explaining observable behavior in terms of reinforcement schedules

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demand characteristics

answer

features of an experiment that seem to "demand" a certain response

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experimental method

answer

intentional manipulation of independent variables in order to investigate effects on one or more dependent variables

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experimental realism

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psychological impact of that manipulations in an experiment

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experimental effect

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effect that is produced or influenced by clues to the hypothesis under examination, inadvertently given by the experimenter

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external validity

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similarity between circumstances surrounding an experiment and circumstances encountered in everyday life

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internal validity

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psychological impact of manipulations in an experiment

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levels of explanation

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thoery of leadership in which effective leadership rests on the ability of the leader to develop good-quality personalized exchange relationships with individual members

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metatheory

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set of interrelated concepts and principles concerning which theories or types of theory are appropriate

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mundane realism

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similarity between circumstances surrounding an experiment and circumstances encountered in everyday life

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neo-behaviorism

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one who attempts to explain observable behavior in terms of contextual factors and unobservable intervening constructs such as beliefs, feelings, and motives

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radical behaviorism

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one who explains observable behavior in terms of reinforcement schedules, without recourse to any intervening unobservable (cognitive) constructs

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reductionism

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a phenomenon in terms of language an concepts of lower level analysis, usually with a loss of explanatory power

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subject effects

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effects that are not spontaneous, owing to demand characteristics and/or participants wishing to please the experimenter

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accentuation principle

answer

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motivated tactician

answer

a model of social cognition that characterizes people as having multiple cognitive strategies available, which they choose among on the basis of personal goals, motives, and needs

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affect-infusion model

answer

cognition is infused with affect sich that social judgements reflect current mood

question

normative models

answer

ideal processes for making accurate social inferences

question

anchoring and adjustment

answer

a cognitive short-cut in which inferences are tied to initial standards or schemas

question

paired distinctiveness

answer

illusory correlation in which items are seen as belonging together because they share some unusual feature

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attribution

answer

the process of assigning a cause to our own behavior, and that of others

question

peripheral traits

answer

traits that have an insignificant influence on the configuration of final impressions, in Asch's configural model of impression formation

question

availability heuristic

answer

a cognitive short-cut in which the frequency or likelihood of an event is based on how quickly instances or associations come to mind

question

personal constructs

answer

idiosyncratic and personal ways of characterizing other people

question

primacy

answer

an order of presentation effect in which earlier presented information has a disproportionate influence on social cognition

question

prototype

answer

cognitive representation of typical/ideal defining features of a category

question

recency

answer

an order of presentation effect in which later presented information has a disproportionate influence on social cognition

question

subtyping

answer

schema change as a consequence of schema inconsistent information, causing the formation of sub-categories

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vividness

answer

an intrinsic property of a stimulus on its owen that makes it stand out and attract attention

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base rate information

answer

pallid, factual, statistical information about an entire class of events

question

behavioral decision theory

answer

set of normative models (ideal processes) for making accurate social inferences

question

illusory correlation

answer

cognitive exaggeration of the degree of co-occurrence of two stimuli or events, or the perception of a co-occurrence where non exists

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implicit personality theories

answer

idiosyncratic and personal ways of characterizing other people and explaining their behavior

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bookkeeping

answer

gradual schema change through the accumulation of bits of schema-inconsistent information

question

central traits

answer

traits that have a disproportionate influence on the configuration of final impressions, Asch's configural model of impression formation

question

cognitive consistency

answer

a model os social categorization in which people try to reduce inconsistency among their cognitions, because they find inconsistency unpleasant

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cognitive miser

answer

a model of social cognition that characterizes people as using the least complex and demanding cognitions that are able to produce generally adaptive behaviors

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configural model

answer

Asch's Gestalt-based model of impression formation, in which central traits play a disproportionate role configuring the final impression

question

conversion

answer

sudden schema change as a consequence of gradual accumulation of schema inconsistent information

question

exemplars

answer

specific instance sof a member of a category

question

fuzzy sets

answer

categories are considered to be fuzzy sets of features organized around a prototype

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Gestalt psychology

answer

perspective in which the whole influences constituent parts rather than vice versa

question

heuristics

answer

cognitive short-cuts that provide adequately accurate inferences for most of us most of the time

question

regression

answer

tendency for initial observations of instances from a category to be more extreme than subsequent observations

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representativeness heuristic

answer

a cognitive short0cut in which instances are assigned to categories or types on the basis of overall similarity or resemblance to the category

question

schema

answer

cognitive structure that represents knowledge about a concept or type of stimulus, including its attributes and the relations among those attributes

question

script

answer

a schema about an event

question

social cognition

answer

cognitive processes and structures that influence and are influenced by social behavior

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social judge ability

answer

perception of whether it is socially acceptable to judge a specific target

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social neuroscience

answer

the exploration of the neurological underpinnings of the processes traditionally examined by social psychology

question

actor observer effect

answer

tendency to attribute our own behaviors externally and others' behaviors internally

question

attributional style

answer

an individual (personality) predisposition to make a certain type of causal attribution for behavior

question

belief in a just world

answer

belief that the world i just and predictable place where food things happen to food people and bad things happen to bad people

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causal schematic

answer

experience-based beliefs about how certain types of cause interact to produce effect

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consensus information

answer

information about the extent to which other people react in the same way to a stimulus X

question

consistency information

answer

information about the extent to which a behavior Y always co-occurs with a stimulus X

question

correspondent inference

answer

causal attribution of behavior to underlying dispositions

question

covariation model

answer

Kelley's theory of causal attribution- people assign the cause of behavior to the factor that covaries most closely with the behavior

question

discounting

answer

if there is no consistent relationship between a specific cause and a specific behavior, that cause is discounted in favor of some other cause

question

distinctiveness information

answer

information about whether a person's reaction occurs only with one stimulus, or is a common reaction to many stimuli

question

external attribution

answer

assigning the cause of our own of others' behavior to external or environmental factors

question

false consensus effect

answer

seeing our own behavior as being more typical than it really is

question

fundamental attribution error

answer

bias in attributing another's behavior more to internal than to situational causes

question

hedonic relevance

answer

refers to behavior that has important direct consequences for self

question

illusion of control

answer

belief that we have more control over our world than we really do

question

intergroup attribution

answer

process of assigning the cause of one's own or others' behavior to group membership

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internal attribution

answer

process of assigning the cause of our own or others' behavior to internal of dispositional factors

question

non-common effects

answer

effects of behavior that are relatively exclusive to that behavior rather than other behaviors

question

over-justification effect

answer

in the absence of obvious external determinants of our behavior, we assume that we freely choose the behavior because we enjoy it

question

personalism

answer

behavior that appears to be directly intended to benefit or harm oneself rather than others

question

self-handicapping

answer

publicly making advance external attributions for our anticipated failure or poor performance in a forthcoming event

question

self-perception theory

answer

Bem's idea that we gain knowledge of ourselves only by making self-attributions: for example, we infer our own attitudes from our own behavior

question

self-serving bias

answer

attributional distortions that protect of enhance self-esteem or the self-concept

question

ultimate attribution error

answer

tendency to attribute bad outgroup or good ingroup behavior internally, and to attribute good outgroup and bad ingroup behavior externally

question

acquiescent response sets

answer

question

priming

answer

activation of accessible categories or schema in memory that influence how we process new information

question

attitude

answer

question

attitude formation

answer

the process of forming our atitudes mainly from our own experiences, the influence of others, and our emotional reactions

question

automatic activation

answer

according to Fazio, attitudes that have a strong evaluative link to situational cues are more likely to come automatically to mind from memory

question

balance theory

answer

question

Bogus pipeline technique

answer

a measurement technique that leads people to believe that a lie detector can monitor their emotional responses , thus measuring their true attitudes

question

relative homogeneity effect

answer

tendency to see outgroup members as all the same, and ingroup members as more differentiated

question

self-efficacy

answer

expectations that we have about our capacity to succeed in particular tasks

question

sociocognitive model

answer

attitude theory highlighting an evaluative component Knowledge of an object is represented in memory along with a summary of how to appraise it

question

unobtrusive measures

answer

observational approaches that neither intrude on the processes being studied nor cause people to behave unnaturally

question

cognitive consistency theories

answer

a group of attitude theories stressing that people try to maintain internal consistency, order, and agreement among their various cognitions

question

expectancy-value model

answer

direct experience with an attitude object informs a person how much that object should be liked or disliked in the future

question

mere exposure effect

answer

repeated exposure to an object results in greater attraction to that object

question

multiple-act criterion

answer

term for a general behavioral index based on an average or combination of several specific behaviors

question

terror management theory

answer

the notion that the most fundmental human motivation is to reduce the terror of the inevitability of death. Self-esteem may be centrally implicated in effective terror management

question

theory of planned behavior

answer

modification by Azjen of the theory of reasoned action. It suggests that predicting a behavior from an attitude measure is improved if people believe they have control over that behavior

question

theory of reasoned action

answer

Fishbein and Azjen's model of the links between attitude and behavior. A major feature is the proposition that the best way to predict a behavior is to ask whether the person intends to do it

question

three-component attitude model

answer

an attitude consists of cognitive, affective, and behavioral components. This threefold division had an ancient heritage, stressing thought, feeling, and action as basic to human experience

question

two-component attitude model

answer

and attitude consists of a mental readiness to act. It also guides evaluative (judgmental) responses

question

unidimensionality

answer

a Guttman scale is cumulative: that is, agreement with the highest-scoring item implies agreement with all lower-scoring items

question

one-component attitude model

answer

an attitude consists of affect towards or evaluation of an object

question

audience

answer

intended target of a persuasive communication

question

cognitive dissonance

answer

question

effort justification

answer

a special case of cognitive dissonance: inconsistency is experienced when a person makes a considerable effort to achieve a modest goal

question

elaboration likelihood model

answer

question

forewarning effects

answer

advance knowledge that one is to be the target of a persuasion attempt. Forewarning often produces resistance to persuasion

question

Heuristic-systematic model

answer

question

induced compliance

answer

a special case of cognitive dissonance: inconsistencies are experienced when a person is persuaded to behave in a way that is contrary to an attitude

question

inoculation

answer

a way of making people resistant to persuasion. By providing them with a diluted counterargument, they can build up effective refutations to a later, stronger argument

question

post-decisional conflict

answer

the dissonance associated with behaving in a counter-attitudinal way. dissonance can be reduced by bringing the attitude into line with the behavior

question

reactance

answer

Brehm's theory that people try to protect their freedom to act. When they perceive that this freedom has been curtailed, they will act to regain it.

question

reciprocity principle

answer

the law of doing unto others as they do to you. it can refer to an attempt to gain compliance by first doing someone a favor, or to mutual aggression or mutual attraction

question

self-affirmation theory

answer

the theory that people reduce the impact of threat to their self concept by focusing on and affirming their competence in some other area

question

BIRGing

answer

Basking in reflected glory - that is, namedropping to link yourself with desirable people or groups and thus improve other people's impression of you

question

depersonalization

answer

the perception and treatment of self and others not as unique individual persons but as prototypical embodiments of a social group

question

impression management

answer

people's use of various strategies to get other people to view them in a positive light

question

looking-glass self

answer

the self derived from seeing ourselves as others see us

question

metacontrast principle

answer

the prototype of a group is that position within the group that has the largest ratio of differences to ingroup positions and differences to outgroup positions

question

regulatory focus theory

answer

a promotion focus causes people to be approach-oriented in constructing a sense of self; a prevention focus causes people to be more cautious and avoidant in constructing a sense of self

question

self-categorization theory

answer

Turner and associates' theory of how the process of categorizing oneself as a group member produces social identity and group and intergroup behaviors

question

self-discrepancy theory

answer

Higgins' theory about the consequences of making actual-ideal and actual-ought self comparisons that reveal self discrepancies

question

self-evaluation maintenance model

answer

people who are constrained to make esteem-damaging upward comparisons can underplay or deny similarity to the target, or they can withdraw from their relationship with the target

question

self-monitoring

answer

carefully controlling how we present ourselves. There are situational differences and individual differences in self-monitoring

question

self-presentation

answer

a deliberate effort to act in ways that create a particular impression, usually favorable, of ourselves

question

self-regulation

answer

strategies that we use to match our behavior to an ideal or ought standard

question

self-verification

answer

seeking out information that verifies and confirms what we already know about ourselves

question

social comparison theory

answer

comparing our behaviors and opinions with those of others in order to establish the correct or socially approved way of thinking and behaving

question

social identity

answer

that part of the self-concept that derives from our membership of social groups

question

social identity theory

answer

theory of group membership and intergroup relations based on self-categorization, social comparison, and the construction of a shared self-definition in terms of ingroup-defining properties

question

symbolic interactionism

answer

question

autokinesis

answer

optical illusion in which a pinpoint of light shining in complete darkness appears to move about

question

conformity

answer

deep-seated, private, and enduring change in behavior and attitudes due to group pressure

question

dual-process dependency model

answer

general model of social influence in which two separate processes operate - dependency on others for social approval and for information about reality

question

foot-in-the-door tactic

answer

multiple-request technique to gain compliance, in which the focal request is preceded by a smaller request that is bound to be accepted

question

informational influence

answer

an influence to accept information from another as evidence about reality

question

low-ball tactic

answer

technique for inducing compliance in which a person who agrees to a request still feels committed after finding that there are hidden costs

question

minority influence

answer

social influence processes whereby numerical or power minorities change the attitudes of the majority

question

normative influence

answer

and influence to conform with the positive expectation of others. to gain social approval or to avoid social disapproval

question

reference group

answer

Kelley's term for a group thats is psychologically significant for our behavior and attitudes

question

compliance

answer

superficial, public, and transitory change in behavior and expressed attitudes in response to requests, coercion, or group pressure

question

conversion effect

answer

when minority influence brings about a sudden and dramatic internal and private change in the attitudes of a majority

question

door-in-the-face tactic

answer

multiple-request technique to gain compliance, in which the focal request is preceded by a larger request that is bound to be refused

question

genetic model

answer

Moscovici's early focus on how social conflict between minority and majority can change the attitudes and behaviors of the majority

question

ingratiation

answer

strategic attempt to get someone to like you in order to obtain compliance with a request

question

referent informational influence

answer

pressure to conform with a group norm that defines oneself as a group member

question

audience effect

answer

impact on individual task performance of the presence of others

question

cohesiveness

answer

the property of a group that affectively binds people, as group members, to one another and to the group as a whole, giving the group a sense of solidarity and oneness

question

contingency theory

answer

theories of leadership that consider the leadership effectiveness of particular behaviors or behavioral styles to be contingent on the nature of the leadership situation

question

coordination loss

answer

deterioration is group performance compared with individual performance, due to problems in coordinating behavior

question

drive theory

answer

Zajonc's theory that te physical presence of members of the same species instinctively causes arousal that motivates performance of habitual behavior patterns

question

free rider effect

answer

gaining the benefits of group membership by avoiding costly obligations of membership and by allowing other members to incur those costs

question

idiosyncrasy credit

answer

Hollander's transactional theory, that followers reward leaders for achieving group goals by allowing them to be relatively idiosyncratic

question

production blocking

answer

reduction in individual creativity and productivity in brainstorming groups due to interruptions and turn taking

question

risky shift

answer

tendency for group discussion to produce group decisions that are more risky than the mean of members' pre-discussion opinions, but only if the pre-discussion mean already favored risk

question

cultural values theory

answer

the view that people in groups use members' opinions about the position valued in the wider culture, and then adjust their views in that direction for social approval reasons

question

distraction-conflict theory

answer

the physical presence of members of the same species causes drive because people are distracting and produce conflict between attending to the task and attending the the audience

question

evaluation apprehension model

answer

the argument that physical presence of members of the same species cause drive because people have learned to be apprehensive about being evaluated

question

great person theory

answer

perspective on leadership that attributes effective leadership to innate or acquired individual characteristics

question

group polarization

answer

tendency for a group discussion to produce extreme group decisions than the mean of members' pre-discussion opinions, in the direction favored by the mean

question

groupthink

answer

a mode of thinking i highly cohesive groups in which the desire to reach unanimous agreement overrides the motivation to adopt proper rational decision-making procedures

question

mere presence

answer

refers to an entirely passive and unresponsive audience that is only physically present

question

persuasive arguments theory

answer

view that people in groups are persuaded by novel information that supports their initial position, and this become more extreme in their endorsement of their initial position

question

Ringelmann effect

answer

individual effort on a task diminishes as group size increases

question

situational control

answer

Fiedler's classifications of task characteristics in terms of how much control effective task performance requires

question

social compensation

answer

increased effort on a collective task to compensate for other group members' actual, perceived, and anticipated lack of effort or ability

question

social decision schemes

answer

explicit or implicit decision'making rules that relate individual opinions to a final group decision

question

social facilitation

answer

an improvement in the performance of well-learned easy tasks and a deterioration in the performance of poorly learned, difficult tasks in the mere presence of members of the same species

question

social impact

answer

the effect that other people have on our attitudes and behaviors, usually as a consequence of factors such as group size and temporal and physical immediacy

question

social loafing

answer

question

task-oriented leader

answer

a leader who is concerned more with getting the job done than with workers' feelings and relationships

question

transactive memory

answer

group members have a shared memory for who within the group remembers what and is the expert on what

question

collective behavior

answer

the behavior of people en masse - such as in a crowd, protest, or riot

question

cognitive alternatives

answer

belief that the status quo is unstable and illegitimate, and that social competition with the dominant group is the appropriate strategy to improve social identity

question

contact hypothesis

answer

the view that bringing members of opposing social groups together will improve intergroup relations and reduce prejudice and discrimination

question

deindividuation

answer

process whereby people lose their sense of socialized individual identity and engage in unsocialized, often antisocial, behaviors

question

egoistic relative deprivation

answer

a feeling of personally having less than we feel we are entitled to, relative to our aspirations or to other individuals

question

emergent norm theory

answer

collective behavior is regulated by norms based on distinctive behavior that arises in the initially normless crowd

question

ethnocentrism

answer

evaluative preference for all aspects of our own group relative to other groups

question

fraternalistic relative deprivation

answer

sense that our group had less than it is entitled to, relative to its aspirations or to other groups

question

intergroup behavior

answer

behavior among individuals that is regulated by those individuals' awareness of and identification with different social groups

question

intergroup differentiation

answer

behavior that emphasizes differences between our own group and other groups

question

minimal group paradigm

answer

experimental methodology to investigate the effect of social categorization alone on behavior

question

prisoner's dilemma

answer

two-person game in which both parties are torn between competition and cooperation and, depending on mutual choices, both can win or both can lose

question

realistic conflict theory

answer

Sherif's theory of intergroup conflict that explains intergroup behavior in terms of the nature of goal relations between groups

question

relative deprivation

answer

a sense of having less than we feel entitled to

question

relative homogeneity effect

answer

tendency to see outgroup members as all the same, and ingroup members as more differentiated

question

social change belief system

answer

belief that intergroup boundaries are impermeable. Therefore, a lower status individual can improve social identity only by challenging the legitimacy of the higher-status group's position

question

social mobility belief system

answer

belief that intergroup boundaries are permeable. This, it is possible for someone to pass from a lower-status into a higher-status group to improve social identity

question

superordinate goals

answer

goals that both groups desire but that can be achieved only by both groups cooperating

question

altruism

answer

a special form of helping behavior, sometimes costly, that shows concern for fellow human beings and is performed without expectation of personal gain

question

bystander-calculus model

answer

in attending to an emergency, the bystander calculates the perceived costs and benefits of providing help compared with those associated with not helping

question

bystander intervention

answer

this occurs when an individual breaks out of the role of a bystander and helps another person in an emergency

question

diffusion of responsibility

answer

tendency of an individual to assume that others will take responsibility (as a result, no one does). This is a hypothesized cause of the bystander effect

question

empathetic concern

answer

question

empathy costs of not helping

answer

Piliavin's view that failing to help can cause distress to a bystander who empathizes with a victim's plight

question

fear of social blunders

answer

that dread of acting inappropriately or of making a foolish mistake witnessed by others. The desire to avoid ridicule inhibits effective responses to an emergency by members of a group

question

just-world hypothesis

answer

question

learning by vicarious experience

answer

acquiring a behavior after observing that another person was rewarded for it

question

personal costs of not helping

answer

Piliavin's view that not helping a victim in distress can be costly to a bystander (e.g. experiencing blame)

question

prosocial behavior

answer

acts that are positively valued by society

question

social learning theory

answer

the view championed by Bandura that human social behavior is not innate but learned from appropriate models

question

social responsibility norm

answer

the idea that we should help people who are dependent and in need. It is contradicted by another norm that discourages interfering in other people's lives

question

affiliative behavior

answer

behaviors which promote group cohesion (friendly/positive gestures), e.g. grooming, touching, and hugging.

question

companionate love

answer

the caring and affection for another person that usually arises from sharing time together

question

comparison level

answer

a standard that develops over time, allowing us to judge whether a new relationship is profitable or not

question

cost-reward ratio

answer

tenet of social exchange theory, according to which liking for another is determined by calculating what it will cost to be reinforced by that person

question

distributive justice

answer

the fairness of the outcome of a decision

question

equity theory

answer

a special case of social exchange theory that defines a relationship as equitable when the ratio of inputs to outcomes is seen to be the same by both partners

question

gain-loss hypothesis

answer

paradox of liking people more if they initially dislike us and then later likes us; and of liking them less if the sequence is reversed

question

minimax strategy

answer

in relating to others, we try to minimize the costs and maximize the rewards that accrue

question

passion love

answer

state of intense absorption in another person involving physiological arousal

question

proximity

answer

the factor of living close by i known to play an important role in the early stages of forming a friendship

question

reinforcement affect model

answer

model of attraction which postulates that we like people who are around when we experience a positive feeling (which itself is reinforcing

question

relationship dissolution model

answer

Duck's proposal of the sequence through which most long-term relationships proceed if they finally break down

question

three factor theory of love

answer

Hatfield and Walster distinguished three components of what we label 'love': a cultural concept of love, and appropriate person to love and emotional arousal

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