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Social Psychology

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"the scientific investigation of how the thoughts, feelings and behavior of individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined or implied presence of others" -Allport, 1954

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Floyd Allport

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Founder of experimental social psychology

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Social Processes

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Our thoughts, feelings and behaviors are influenced by the people around us, the groups to which we belong, the teachings of our parents and our culture ("Group in the individual")

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Cognitive Processes

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Our memories, perceptions, thoughts, and emotions guide our understanding of the world and our actions ("Individual in the group")

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Three Processing Principes of Social Psychology

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1. Conservatism 2. Accessibility 3. Superficiality vs. Depth

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Conservatism

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Individuals often overestimate the emotional impact that life events will have on them (relationships, consumer behavior etc.) ---Dan Gilbert discusses this in depth and how difficult it is to overcome this bias

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Accessibility

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The potential of cognitive info to be used. Can be done through priming etc.

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Superficiality vs. Depth

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Dual process theories of social psychology. There are different ways of processing information: heuristic ways and in-depth ways -each are utilized under different circumstances and operate in different ways

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Social Simon Tasks

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(Sebanz, et al., 2003) People are influenced in decision-making tasks by irrelevant information -actions of others influence our behaviors

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The Simon Effect

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Reaction times are usually faster and more accurate when the stimulus occurs in the same relative location as the response, even if the stimulus location is irrelevant to the task

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Ned Block

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- Famous American philosopher who focuses on "The Self" - Presented the Blockhead argument against the Turing Test as a test of intelligence - Criticizes functionalism, arguing that a system with the same functional states as a human is not necessarily conscious ---awareness IS NOT EQUAL TO self consciousness

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Functionalism

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Mental states (beliefs, desires, being in pain, etc.) are constituted solely by their functional role — that is, they are causal relations to other mental states, sensory inputs, and behavioral outputs

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Transference

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Activating a self concept that fits a certain significant other

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Self Esteem

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Evaluations of the self

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"The State Task Force to Promote Self-Esteem and Personal and Social Responsibility"

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?

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The Rosenberg Scale

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- Explicit self-esteem measure - Widely used in social-science research through a 10 point questionnaire with four options (SA, A, D, SD)

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The Name-Letter Effect

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- Implicit self-esteem measure - An individual prefers the letters belonging to their own name and will select these above other letters in choice tasks -affects choice of occupation, city etc (Pelham)

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Motivation

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Self-related needs for (1) accuracy (accurate feedback about the self), (2) consistency (consistent feedback that affirms the self image), (3) improvement and (4) self-enhancement (maintaining self-esteem)

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Upward Social Comparison

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Looking up to a mentor

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Downward Social Comparison

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Looking down on less fortunate people

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Positive Illusions of Self Enhancement

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- People see themselves in a more positive way than others do - They think they have more control than they actually do - See the future in an unrealistically positive light

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Self-Affirmation

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(Steele, 1988) - People are motivated to maintain the integrity of the self. - Reactions to bruised self-image with the goal to repair it

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Fein & Spencer (1997)

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?

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Terror Management Theory

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- A theory of death-related anxiety; explores people's emotional and behavioral responses to reminders of their impending death - Proposes that faith in one's worldview and the pursuit of self-esteem provide protection against a deeply rooted fear of death.

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Name 3 Ways People Improve/ Maintain Self-Esteem

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1. Biases 2. Social comparison 3. Terror management

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David Hume

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- "Causality can never be perceived, it is always in inference" - Philosophized about how people form judgements about causal relations with it comes to actions and traits about themselves

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Principles of Inferring Causality

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- Michotte - Something is seen as the cause of something else if: 1. It happens earlier (PRIORITY) 2. The effect is consistent with it (CONSISTENCY) 3. This is no potential other cause (EXCLUSIVITY)

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Explain Daniel Wegner's Understanding of "Self-Agency"

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?

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"Conscious Decisions" Liber, Gleason, Wright & Pearl (1983)

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?

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Wegner's "I Spy" Study

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?

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Aarts, Veltkamp & Custers (2008)

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?

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Aarts, Custers & Marien (2009)

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?

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**Lots to review in Lecture 2 on "The Self" - read up on that cheese"

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You go rock that cheddar

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Self-Regulation

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- Not one answer - "...the controlling of an activity or process, usually by means of rules or laws" -Collins - Central Question: Is behavior REGULATED or doing the REGULATING?

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Carver & Scheier's (1998) Cybernetic Control Theory

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Using knowledge from engineering to understand human behavior - Examples: (1) Wiener Cybernetics: control and communication in the animal and the machine (2) Homeostasis (3) TOTE-model (4) Powers (1973) (5) Schank & Abelson Scripts

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Homeostasis

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- Self-regulating systems in biology

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TOTE-model

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- Miller, Galanter & Pribram (1960) - TOTE= Test-Operate-Test-Exit Example: Driving a nail into a floorboard Test= is the head of the nail level with the board If Test=True > Exit If Test= False > Operate - TOTE models monitor progress towards a gal but are not very flexible (operate or exit) -also a very serial process

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Powers (1973)

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- Proposed perceptual control theory (PCT)

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Perceptual Control Theory (PCT)

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- Powers - A model of the psychological and behavioral processes that posits that we are goal-driven, purposeful entities rather than automata, repeating conditioned responses to external stimuli or computers planning commands that will produce desired actions. - Behavior, in PCT, is the means by which an organism controls its perceptions; and actions are not controlled, they are varied so as to cancel the effects that unpredictable environmental disturbances would otherwise have on controlled perceptions. -PCT is grounded in the principles of negative feedback but it moves beyond behaviorism

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Behaviorism

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"The control of perception" - The view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behaviour without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2)

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Powers' Driving Example

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?

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Schank & Abelson (1977)

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- Studied the nature of knowledge that is needed to understand the world and therefore to understand natural language through analyzing restaurant scripts and comparing them with motor programs. - Main Claim: Structured knowledge dominates understanding. - Question: "What is the content of these structures?" -

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Script

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- A stereotyped sequence of actions that defines a well-known situation and has associated with it (in the case of Shank's study...): (1) a number of roles for the actors (different points of view on the situation, e.g. customer vs waiter vs cook), (2) different tracks (e.g. restaurant, fast-food), (3) different scenes (e.g. enter, order, eat, pay); each scene has a MAINCON, i.e. a main conceptualization, which must have happened if the scene is instantiated, (4) props, entry conditions, results, branches and loops etc.

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Carver & Scheier (1998)

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Studied secondary feedback loop that tracks rate of progress towards a goal - If progress is higher than standard > positive affect - If progress is lower than standard > negative affect

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Mischel & Ayduk (2004)

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- Studied how people go about controlling their impulses through SELF-CONTROL, SELF-REGULATION and WILL POWER - Argued that there is a battle between hot and cold systems (affective vs. cognitive and rational)

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Hot Impulse Control System

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Fast, evolutionarily old system- basic approach avoidance reactions

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Cold Impulse Control System

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Slow, cognitive (conscious ?) system -relies on mental representations of the goal state

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Delay of Gratification

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Suppressing impulses to gain a higher reward

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Baumeister et al.

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- Ego depletion - Argued that the mind is like a muscle -it wears out

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Akerman et al. (2009)

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?

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Gailliot et al. (2007)

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?

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Self Discrepancy Theory

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- Higgins - People compare themselves to internalized standards called "self-guides". These different representations of the self can be contradictory and result in emotional discomfort. - Self-Discrepancy Theory states that people are motivated to reduce the gap in order to remove disparity in self-guides.

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Self- Discrepancy

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The gap between two of these self-representations.

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Promotion vs. Prevention Focus

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Promotion= Do something to realize a positive outcome (study hard to make your parents proud Prevention= Do something to avoid a negative consequence (study hard to prevent your parents from cutting your allowance) **Joy (promotion) vs. Relief (prevention**

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Manipulation Van Promotion/Prevention Focus

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? Forster et al ? Maze task, flex or stretch arm tast

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Regulatory Fit (Higgins)

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?

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Bargh and Unconscious Self-Regulation

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?

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**Go back to Lecture 3 and basically learn all of unconscious self-regulation*

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? You're a 'tard. you should probably buy a textbook...

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Attitude

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"A psychological tendency that is expressed by evaluating a particular entity with some degree of favor or disfavor" (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993)

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Behavior is formed through ______

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Behavioral Intention

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What is "Behavioral Intention" comprised of?

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(1) Attitude toward the behavior - people's specific attitude toward the behavior, not their general attitude (2) Subjective norms- People's beliefs about how other people they care about will view the behavior in question (3) Perceived behavioral control- the ease with which people believe they can perform the behavior.

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Give an example of how attitudes can have INTERGROUP effects

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Politics, Nationalism, Racism

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Give an example of how attitudes can have INTERPERSONAL effects

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Marketing, health, policy

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Give an example of how attitudes can have INTRAPERSONAL effects

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Attractiveness, relations

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_____ are the link between our environment and our reactions to it

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Attitudes

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Antonakis & Dalgas (2009)

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- Study on perceived attitudes - Competence evaluations of Swiss children predicted French elections (??)

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BAS/BIS

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?

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Amygdala/ Dopamine System

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?

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Three Components of The Attitude Concept in Social Psychology

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Cognitively-Based Affectively-Based Behaviorally-Based (CAB)

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Cognitively-Based Attitude

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-An attitude based primarily on people's beliefs about the properties of an attitude object. -Sometimes our attitudes are based primarily on the relevant facts, such as the objective merits of an automobile: How many miles to the gallon does it get? Does it have side-impact air bags?

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Affectively-Based Attitude

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- An attitude based more on people's feelings and values than on their beliefs about the nature of an attitude object. -Sometimes we simply like a car, regardless of how many miles to the gallon it gets. How does it make you feel?

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Behaviorally-Based Attitude

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- An attitude based on observations of how one behaves toward an attitude object. -According to Daryl Bem's (1972) self-perception theory —under certain circumstances—people don't know how they feel until they see how they behave. IMPLICATION: We can form our attitudes based on our observations of our own behavior!

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Explain how the 3 different components of attitude could be applied to the concept of "SMOKING"

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Cognitive Component- Makes your lungs black and gross Affective Component- People think smoking smells bad Behavioral Component- ...this one is harder. Smoking isn't allowed in certain places...I really don't know actually (?)

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Functions of Attitudes (3)

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(1) Knowledge Function- Help to understand and structure the world and tell us how to react (approach vs. avoid) (2) Value-Expressive Function- Show what you find important (low self-monitors) (3) Social Function- Adapt to social surroundings (high self-monitors)

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How does the attitude concept function?

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Through COGNITIVE CONSISTENCY... - People seek out information, environments and individuals that fit their attitudes (Selective Exposure) - People give selective attention to attitude-consistent information - People represent new information in a way that is attitude-consistent (Selective Interpretation) - People have slightly better memory for attitude-consistent information (Selective Memory **These functional effects are stronger for stronger attitudes**

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Fazio (2007)

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(?) - "Attitudes as object-evaluation associations of varying strength"

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Where do attitudes come from?

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(?)

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Evaluative Conditioning

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(?)

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Attitude and Repeated Exposure

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(?)

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Fishbein & Ajzen (1975)

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(?) - Studied attitudes as aggregate of beliefs Belief: Chance that a certain object has a certain property Attitude = Sum of products of beliefs and their evaluations **wierd equation -> do i need to know this ****?**

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Expectancy-Value Principle

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(?)

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Summary Evaluation

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(?) -Explains what is stored from expectancy-value things - Fazio, 2007: summary evaluation is stored - Otherwise not efficient and adaptive - "Summary evaluation" can as a consequence be automatically activated

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Positive/ Negative Affect

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(?) Approach vs Avoidance behavior

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How do we measure ambivalence?

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- Calculate ambivalence from responses on the positive and negative dimensions through a formula - Ask people to what extent they have mixed feelings

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