ANT EXAM 3.4 – Flashcards

Part of the Dawes Act of 1887 - Took Indian land and split it up for those among the tribes and sold the rest to non-Indians Allowed white settlers to settle in Indian land 160 acres per Indian family, but most of the land left over went to non-indian families. Tribes based on the nuclear family, and non communal land --> undermines culture The separation of land through families broke up their tribal community and broke cultural structure

Senator from New Mexico and the Secretary of the Interior under President Harding Infamous for his involvement in the Teapot Dome scandal Established policies to get rid of Southwest Native Americans Accused of election fraud scandal, corrupt Wanted to terminate all federal obligations to Native Americans Drew attention to termination During Indian New Deal.... Teapot Dome Scandal Bribery incident that took place in the United States from 1922-1923, during the Harding administration Secretary of the Interior Albert B. Fall leased Navy petroleum reserves at Teapot Dome and two other locations to private oil companies at low rates without competitive bidding In 1922 and 1923, the leases became the subject of a sensational investigation by Senator Thomas J. Walsh Fall was later convicted of accepting bribes from the oil companies Take home message: Fall was one of the many politicians who was intent on extracting Indian lands for their own profits

Vocational emphasis taught things like how to be a seamstress, service jobs, etc. similar to what we would consider immigrant labor today Euro-american agriculture and animal husbandry Sewing, cooking, and dairy Reading, writing, math "pro-assimilation, but not anti-indian" HELPED THEM BE "SUCCESSFUL" AND MAKE A LIVING OUTSIDE OF RESERVATIONS...weren't actively trying to take away their culture.

Agency of federal govt of the US, Department of the Interior, responsible for administration and management of 55,700,000 acres of land held in trust by the US for Native Americans in the US, Native American Tribes, and Alaska Natives (wiki) Grew out of a system of Indian Agents, who reported to territorial governors and the War Department Office of Superintendent of Indian Trade, and ultimately (1824) BIA in the War Department (lecture) Tasks of BIA Distribute "Civilization Fund" set aside to help the lives of native americans Settle White and Indian Claims Manage Indian agents Carry out both acculturation and removal agendas (lecture) implement peace commission Set up Indian schools (cultural assimilation with whites)

Although they are a sovereign nation they are not equal to a foreign country They are still slightly dependent on the US and have to follow many of their rules but can't establish their own rules Worcester v. Georgia

Occupation of Alcatraz Island by the group IAT (Indians of All Tribes) Lasted 19 month from 1969-1971 Felt entitled to the land because of the Treaty of Fort Laramie which stated that land that was no longer in use by the US government be returned to the Native Americans in which it came from Wanted to gain Indian control over the island for the purpose of building a center for Native American Studies, an American Indian spiritual center, an ecology center, and an American Indian Museum Eventually ended by US government-

This is like "ward" status where the Federal Govt. acknowledges special responsibilities to tribes. John Marshall felt that NA were so young that even though they were their own country the US owed it to them to take care of them federal government recognizes special responsibilities it holds towards tribes

1948 Collier had a policy of relocating Native Americans to cities where they would have better job opportunities The pace of city life and discrimination experienced was very traumatic for some Native Americans who decided to leave. Federal funding for this was poor and many went back to the reservations. in 1940 only 8% of Native Americans were living in cities but by 1960 this program had expanded to about 30% Around 75% went back to reservations

Regarding termination programs of the mid 1940s-mid 60s. Under Eisenhower and Dillon S. Myer Tribal sovereignty dissolved/broken Took away special treatment such as tribal governance Government wanted to end their relationship with the Indians, didn't want anymore obligations to the indians, didn't want them to be "wards" anymore Natives would no longer be exempt from the law, would now have to pay taxes on their businesses and their lands Between 1954 and 1962 congress imposed termination upon 61 tribes, groups, bands and communities thereby severing their federal services, protections and sense of sovereignty tribes were corporations that would have to pay taxes on land

"The problem of Indian Administration" 1928 Critical of Federal policy Recommended: Making boarding schools day schools Allowing tribal self government More property protection Shift from "assimilation" to "pluralism" First general study of Indian conditions since the 1850s The Meriam Report provided much of the data used to reform American Indian policy through new legislation: the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 It strongly influenced succeeding policies in land allotment, education, and health care Report criticized the Department of Interior's implementation of the Dawes Act

Was an organization founded in 1923 by social worker John Collier, that fought to protect religious freedom and tribal property for Native Americans in the United States In the 1920s Antonio Luhan a member of the Taos Pueblo showed John Collier the poor living conditions in American Indian communities In response to what he saw, Collier founded the American Indian Defense Association For the next decade Collier headed Indian reform efforts, and in 1933 President Franklin D. Roosevelt appointed Collier as the new commissioner of Indian Affairs Almost immediately Collier tried to change the government's direction by revitalizing American Indian life and culture

Black indians from Florida Enslaved africans were coming down to escape slavery- seminoles integrated black slaves into their society Formed a strategic alliance with the Seminoles Less cohesive than the others, no single agreement could be reached Treaties signed in 1832 + 1833 but these were not accepted by other seminoles War between the Federal troops and the seminoles raged from 1835-1842 Not a single seminole chief leader- not organized feared by the US government as both Native American and African insurgents Most were forced to move to reservations The indian territories-seminoles were mistreated 1849 Ruling that black Seminoles could be enslaved-- would escape to Mexico or unsettled areas of Texas Zachary Taylor led troops against the Seminole in 1837-1839

"Sovereignty is the quality of having supreme, independent authority over a geographic area" Tribal sovereignty in the United States refers to the inherent authority of indigenous tribes to govern themselves within the borders of the United States of America The federal government recognizes tribal nations as "domestic dependent nations" and has established a number of laws attempting to clarify the relationship between the federal, state, and tribal governments The Constitution and later federal laws grant local sovereignty to tribal nations, yet do not grant full sovereignty equivalent to foreign nations, hence the term "domestic dependent nations" (Worcester v. Georgia coined this term)

1934- Officially called the Wheeler-Howard Act Regarded by most Indians as an improvement over previous policies The individual ownership and sale of unallotted lands to whites, as provided by the Dawes Act were terminated Provision was made for adding to reservation lands A limited degree of Indian self-government was restored, and tribes, at their own option, could incorporate and elect tribal governments invested with certain legal powers While the Act had serious shortcomings, the provisions of the act were hailed as positive accomplishments by most (Vogel 196) Sometimes know as the Indian New Deal it was the initiative of John Collier, under President Franklin D. Roosevelt (wiki). Self-determination

1944- It was made in response to the U.S. government's assimilation and termination policies Currently, the NCAI is fighting for improved living conditions on reservations, arguing that 560 tribes are federally recognized but fewer than 20 tribes generate enough wealth from casinos to turn the tribe's economy around. Voting right is reserved for tribal and individual members U. of Chicago Anthropology helped to increase its size in 1960s. 80 tribes were members Force for self-determination and emergence of Pan Indian Movements

After 'Termination' in the 1950s the government began a process of recognizing tribes. It's been fairly contentious because the government wouldn't recognize some tribes, and often tribe A would fight so that Tribe B would not receive recognition (and set up a casino next door) The act of forming or returning to a tribal group or division After 'Termination' in the 1950s the government began a process of recognizing tribes. It's been fairly contentious because the government wouldn't recognize some tribes, and often tribe A would fight so that Tribe B would not receive recognition (and set up a casino next door)

American social reformer and Native American advocate Commissioner for the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) in FDR's administration, and is considered chiefly responsible for the Indian Reorganization Act (Indian New Deal) of 1934 Pushed for Meriam Commission Report

applied to people who were enslaved by Native Americans in Oklahoma. Legal status: Native Americans are US Citizens since the "Indian Citizenship Act of 1924"five civilized tribes had to emancipate slaves after they purchased land in Oklahoma. Indians from northern plains and the north were moved to Oklahoma including the · Fox, Potawatomi, Osage, Iowa, Nebraska Pawnee, and South Dakota Ponca

One of the themes in US policy Jefferson said in many of his writings as being equivalent to Europeans in natural sense Proof of genius: cultivation skills Wanted to civilize the Indians [from wiki]A term used when smaller groups within a larger society maintain their unique cultural identities, and their values and practices are accepted by the wider culture provided they are consistent with the laws and values of the wider society "Over the last few centuries of cultural interaction in North America there have been several different models for how Native American society might exist. One was basically genocide - Native peoples would cease to exist. A second was cultural assimilation - whether a blending of the many cultures or that Native Americans would adopt Euro-American ways. A third was cultural pluralism, the idea that America is made up of many different subcultures and Native Americans would be one of them. US policy concerning Native Americans has gone back and forth especially between the second and third of these models. Sometimes, as with the Indian boarding schools the congress tried to force assimilation, sometimes as with the Indian Reorganization Act, others tried to allow for self government, etc." -Professor Wilson

Governors of the Republic of Texas. Houston had more pro-Indian policies, Lamar wanted to force Native Americans out of TX; Lamar: expulsion and extermination Houston: pacification and mutual defense

Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act of 1975 Authorized some government agencies to enter into contracts with, and make grants directly to, federally recognized Indian tribes The tribes would have authority for how they administered the funds, which gave them greater control over their welfare; Ronald Reagan and New Federalism. Went from forced assimilation for indigenous people to live how they see fit. Indian Self Determination and Education Assistance Act: setting up schools, moving back to nation to nation policy within that sovereignty, tribes have power over how they allocate their funding National Congress of American Indians (1944) helped drive the force for self-determination and saw to the emergence of Pan-Indian acts

As a result of the Dawes Act (repealed under Roosevelt Administration) brought together a powerful coalition of Indian groups. One of the first successful joining of "Pan-Indian" groups Philosophy and movement promoting unity among different American Indian groups in the Americas regardless of tribal or local affiliations The movement is largely associated with Native Americans in the United States, but has spread to other indigenous groups as well Pan-Indian organizations seek to pool the resources of indigenous groups in order to protect the interests of native peoples across the world The National Congress of American Indians can be seen as an advance of Pan-Indianism because it attempts to give Native Americans more rights and a voice in their own affairs Another example: AIM movement

(General Allotment Act 1887) authorized the president of the US to survey Indian tribal land and divide it into allotments for individual Indians. Amended in 1891 and 1906 by the Burke Act. Had negative effect on Indians, as it ended their communal holding of property by which they had ensured that everyone had a home and a place in the tribe (wiki) (From Slides) Reservations were largely economic failures Allocation of 160 acres to each indian "households" (based on nuclear families) Recipients once they got the 160 acres became citizens Severing ownership from indigenous groups The help the Native Americans were supposed to receive from the BIA help was an economic disaster Took reservations that help community land and gave 160 acres per household, recipients became citizens Opened up million of acres for settlers Senator Dawes believed the act would help assimilation, would help them become more "civilized", as they would be able to cultivate the land--> farmers Divided Indian land up and gave the rest to euro-americans Gave citizenship to indians Enacted from 1887-1934 Loss of 90,000,000 acres of Indian-owned land Brought together a powerful coalition of indian groups to combat the act

set up after the Civil War (1867) to try to negotiate peace on the plains. The subtext was that "it was cheaper to feed and house people on reservations than fight them" Negotiated treaties with groups- created a system of education/religion- allotted land to indians Provided religious instruction (Christianity) and annuities of clothing Tried to stop contact between whites and natives- merchants caused problems with firearms and alcoholism --- from notes Attempt to implement a policy of helping Indian nations rather than fighting them Cheaper to feed the Indians than to fight them, but diplomats would force the concessions Thought it would be cheaper for the government to provide everything for them rather than let the indians get violent and start a war After civil war, Indians were upset that they didn't get the citizenship they were promised after fighting, and all of the treaties that were previously agreed upon were negated, and then they started the war on the plains, this was a resolution to the war on the plains. Organize reservations Isolating from whites Annuities of clothing Allotment of lands to individuals Theory it was going to be cheaper than war on the plains

Commissioner of the Bureau of Indian Affairs under Truman (right after FDR) Very conservative and a proponent of termination, wanted to eliminate Bureau of Indian Affairs Again Indian New Deal policies Wanted assimilation in and Industrialized America Wanted to end federal ward relationship- US government obligation to help Native Americans Proposed termination policies Went back to idea of individualizing land holdings Reduce tribal self-rule and authority Ended revolving credit Wanted to end the special relationship between US and Native Americans

Class-action lawsuit against U.S. government which claimed mismanagement of American Indian tribal assets U.S. government eventually gave back 3 billion dollars to settle the case On December 8, 2009, a $3.4 billion settlement was announced.[1] $1.4 billion of the settlement is allocated to plaintiffs in the suit, and up to $2 billion is allocated for re-purchase of lands distributed under the Dawes Act. (wiki)

Fought by states non-taxed Indians cannot vote Residency requirement Federal guardianship disqualifies Poll taxes, literacy tests, etc. Gerrymandering to dilute Native vote

In 1924 Native American's were granted citizenship by Congress → Now they could vote The granting of citizenship under the 1924 Indian Citizenship Act was a move by the U.S. government in order to absorb Indians into mainstream society Some Indians not satisfied because they were still scared they might have to give up their sovereignty Regardless of this act, many states found ways to deny voting rights to Indians Native Americans received citizenship as part of the Dawes Act if they took their allotted land

Ability of Native Americans to sell land to non-Native Americans (helps the process of alienating Native AMericans from their culture) 1908 Act (35 U.S. 312) removing restriction on "alienation" of property (What does this mean?) loss of tax exempt status for 8 Million acres (referring to 1908 Act) this ability to sell reservation or native lands to non-natives simply helps the alienation of Native Americans and their ancestry/culture.

Don't pay taxes on land or profits from reservation lands Under Federal versus local authority U.S. citizens since 1924 (Native Americans are US Citizens since the "Indian Citizenship Act of 1924") Gave all US born Native Americans citzenship Greater autonomy since Indian Self- determination Acts of 1975

The Indian Reorganization Act of June 18, 1934, sometimes known as the Indian New Deal, was U.S. federal legislation that secured certain rights to Native Americans, including Alaska Natives These include actions that contributed to the reversal of the Dawes Act's privatization of communal holdings of American Indian tribes and a return to local self-government on a tribal basis The Act also restored to Indians the management of their assets (being mainly land) and included provisions intended to create a sound economic foundation for the inhabitants of Indian reservations The Indian Reorganization Act was perhaps the most significant initiative of John Collier Sr., Commissioner of the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) from 1933 to 1945 He had worked on Indian issues for ten years prior to his appointment, particularly with the Indian Defense Fund. He had intended to reverse some of the worst government policies and provide ways for American Indians to re-establish sovereignty and self-government, to reduce the losses of reservation lands, and establish ways for Indians to build economic self-sufficiency Various other interests affected changes to the legislation that reduced protections for Indians and preserved oversight by BIA John Collier appointed Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Religious freedom, More self-gov., Emphasize "the study of Indian civilization, including indian arts, crafts, skills, and traditions" (not passed),reorganize land allocation system and,have special court for Indian cases (not passed) Native Americans were able to get back some of their land. Reversed the Dawes Act.

1865-1900 Indian service unable to prevent white encroachment backlash from Civil War. Native Americans were not granted citizenship even after fighting. The federal government would not recognize the treaties they had with Native Americans. After war, the congress was more explicit that they were going to try to find nonviolent means to force indigenous people on to reservations and try to create buffers to keep encroaching white settlers away from indigenous lands tremendous violence Indians promised unspecified lands Comanche/Apache Federal deal for west Texas rescinded Sioux and other on the northern Plains helped bring about the Peace Commission of 1867 because it was cheaper than having a war on the plains

Indian Boarding Schools Indian boarding schools set up to teach Native American children how to live in white society Children were usually forcibly removed from their tribes and sent to schools far away so they could not run away Weren't allowed to speak their native languages Indian Service Schools Education taught mostly vocational, agriculture, husbandry, etc.

They expected to be citizens after the Civil War, but were not treated as such Indian Citizenship Act of 1924 granted to full US citizenship to America's indigenous people 1870s Supreme Courts say federal government is released from previous treaties with the Native Americans Union and Confederate Indians suffered equally through the "Reconstruction treaties" which took more Indian land for railroad and ranches US Policy after the Civil War broke down some of the social structure of tribes For example, food was given to family or individuals and not tribal leader so they lost their sense of power/hierarchy of tribes broken

A disaster! 5 Civilized tribes fought on both sides 5500 fought for the Confederacy and 4000 fought for the Union Tribes were already split up prior to the Civil War because of relocation to Indian Territory Former southern-eastern Indians were promised an all-Indian state after the war Indian Territory was pillaged by raiders from the North and South (burning of homes and killing cattle)

1887: The Dawes Act of 1887 Adopted by Congress in 1887, authorized the President of the United States to survey Indian tribal land and divide it into allotments for individual Indians 1900-1924: Alienation Alienate Native Americans from their ancestry Thought their culture was going "extinct" 1933-1936: New Deal FDR and John Collier Many policies reversed Indian Reorganization Act of 1934- legislation that secured certain rights for Native Americans Reversed the Dawes Act and allowed them to return to self government on a tribal basis Mid 1950s - early 1960s: Relocation With Dillon Myers as Commissioner of Indian Affairs wanted to provide infrastructures for Indians to be able to move into cities By 1961 there were cities in the West Coast like Chicago, but also Dallas, Cleveland, etc. 30,000 Native Americans participated in this relocation Post WWII (mid 1940s-mid 1960s): Termination Eisenhower wanted to "terminate" and get rid of special laws for Native Americans A way to end Indian's "ward" relationship with the Federal Government Mid 1970s - onward: reverse Termination Nixon and Ford reverse termination Policies 1978 Religious Freedom Act Ronald Reagan - New Federalism, self-determination, nation-to-nation relations 1988 Indian Self Governance Act