question

What are three processes that only occur with atoms?

answer

1) Atomic absorption
2) Atomic Emission
3) Atomic Fluorescence: excitation is by absorbing light

question

Name the three factors that contribute to atomic line width

answer

1. uncertainty principle: can't measure energy and time infinitely well
2. Doppler broadening: when atom moves closer to the light source, it absorbs more light and therefore, has a longer line width.
3. Pressure broadening: atoms collide so their electric fields interact and modify the line width.

question

What are three tasks that must be completed by the Atomizer?

answer

1) Get sample into the atomic state
2) Get atoms into the gas phase
3) Remove interferences (largest source of error)

question

Name seven processes that may occur with a Flame as an atomizer

answer

1) Nebulization
2) Desolvation
3) Liquefacation
4) Vaporization
5) Atomization
6) Excitation
7) Ionization

question

What is the main difference between the Graphite Furnace versus Flame?

answer

You can pyrolyze, which means you can remove that matrix without removing the analyte.

question

Name three characteristics of a Hallow Cathode Lamp (HCL)

answer

1) Made of metal/material containing atoms we want to measure
2) Emit wavelengths which are unique to our element of interest
3) Lamp uses atomic emission to emit wavelenghts your're interested in.

question

Name some advantages and disadvantages of HCL

answer

Adv: Maintain selectivity
Disadv: you must change light bulb everytime you test a different element, horrible for qualitative analysis

question

Name three characteristics of an Electrodeless Discharge Lamp (EDL)

answer

1) Good for volatile elements
2) Metal of interest in a low P bulb in the gas phase.
3) Radio frequency is used to excite the atoms.

question

Name an advantage and disadvantage for EDL

answer

Adv: stable, very intense, better detection limit
Disadv: expensive

Also, can have single or multielement light sources

question

Name two non-spectral interferences that can occur with AAS

answer

1) Chemical interferences
2) Ionization
3) Matrix interferences

question

What are some ways to fix the chemical interferences for AAS?

answer

Problem: Formation of non-volatile compounds
Solution:
1) Add a better cation (stronger affinitiy for the anion than analyte)
2) standard addition
3) change the solvent
4) Add a better anion: binds to analyte and volatilizes
5) Hotter flame
6) Match matrix with standards

question

What are some ways to fix the ionization issue in AAS?

answer

Problem: ions don't absorb the same atomic wavelengths.
Answer: 1) Lower the flame temperature
2) Use ionization suppressor: compunds which will ionize easily, supply electrons (alkali metals: Cs)

question

What are some ways to deal with matrix intereferences for AAS?

answer

Problem: organic compunds in the matrix can burn; causing an increase in flame T.
Answer: match matrix, sample pre-treatment, standard addition

question

Name three spectral intereferences that can occur for AAS

answer

1) Overlapping atomic peaks (NOT A PROBLEM)
2) Combustion products (cause broad peaks)
3) Molecular products

question

What is one way you can eliminate the interference from the combustion products in AAS?

answer

Run a blank

question

Name four ways to correct for the intereferences caused by molecular products in AAS

answer

1) Match the blank matrix better
2) Change flames: get it hotter
3) 2-line method
4) Continuous source (HCL)

question

Explain the 2-line correction method

answer

-Get 2 spectral lines
1) One is absorbed by analyte and interferencec
2) The second is close by in wavelength but is only absorbed by the interferences
So, you subtract the interferences.

question

Explain the continous source correction process

answer

The broadband source gives us background absorption. If you subtract what you get from the moleculark you get the atomic absorption.
-Don't need to worry about the two wavelengths ( like 2 line method)

question

Can we make a qualitative application for AAS?

answer

No, we don't worry about it; each elements needs a different HCL.

question

What must you remember when applying a quantitative analysis to AAS?

answer

1) analytes must be atomized
2) absorb in UV and visible
3) exclusively metals

question

How can we prepare a solution for AAS

answer

Flame--> solutions only
Graphite furnace --> both solids and liquids
1. SA digestion
2. Combustion in a bomb
3. Microwave decomposotion (might lose sample, remove interefereces)

question

What type of standards would you run for AAS

answer

External or standard addition

question

What are two basic principles of AES?

answer

1) Measure emission of atoms as they relax from exicted to ground state.
2) Excite atoms

question

What factors take temperature into account for AES?

answer

1) excitation source
2) Variable in Pressure and Doppler broadening
3) Produce atoms
4) Determine number of atoms in ground state vs. excited state.

question

What are some characterisitcs of the flame used for atomic emission?

answer

1) simple, but relatively low temperature: few atoms are excited, restricted to atoms w/ lower energy levels.
2) Temp fluctuations are a large source of error

question

What are two electrical excitation sources?

answer

We want to impact our sample with high energy electrons (transfer KE)
1) DC arc
2) High Voltage spark

question

What are some characteristics of the DC arc?

answer

1) plasma forms: free electrons, positive ions, and neutral species
2) excite sample w/ electrical thermal energy
3) poor stability
4) volatile atoms emitting before non-volatile ones. can do solids, and have 5-10% precision; 10-100 ppb

question

What are the advantages and disadvantages of using a spark source?

answer

General: use avg. measurement because sparks hit different areas of sampple.
Adv: analyze most elements, including Ne, Ar, O2, N2, halogens; can do liquids, solids, and gas.
Disadv: poor sensitivity, lots of lines yielding possible interferences

question

Name the 5 steps involved for Plasma (Inductively coupled plasma)

answer

1) Introduce Air
2) radiofrequency will produce magnetic field
3) Ignite the plasma
4) ion and electrons accelerate in magnetic field -->increase T
5) sample introduced

question

What are the advantages for using ICP?

answer

1) plasma is stable (need to make sure signal intensity is consistent: helps w/ precision. Important to matrix match standards
2) minimal number of chemical interferences
3) high atomization efficiencies

question

What's a major disadvantage to ICP>

answer

Background emission

question

How can we get high resolution from our monochromator?

answer

1) Increase inverse linear dispersion
2) use mutliple orders of refraction

question

Name three types of luminescence. How do they differ from one another?

answer

1) Fluorescence
2) Phosphorescence
3) Chemiluminescence

question

Probability of smething happening is related to ______ scale. _____ processes are more likely to occur than ______ processes.

answer

time / Fast / slow

question

Name six different relaxation processes.

answer

1) Vibrational relaxation
2) Internal conversion
3) Intersystem crossing
4) Fluorescence
5) Phosphorescence
6) External conversion

question

Explain vibrational relaxtion briefly.

answer

Lose energy to solvent during collsions, so there's a slight temperature change within vibrational transitions.
- 10^-12 lifetime

question

Internal conversion?

answer

Switches over to another excited state (could be rotational).
It happens when lowest energy vibronic state of one envelope overlaps with energy of another. BUT they need to have same multiciplity.

question

Intersystem corssing?

answer

Same as internal conversion, except change in multiplicity (its a measure of electron spin)

question

Fluorescence versus phosphorescence?

answer

Fluorescence: 10^-9, occurs in singlet state.
Phosphorescence: 10^-3, come from quantum mechanically forbidden

question

What are the 6 factors which intensity?

answer

1) Quantum yield: Fi = rate of fluorescence / rate all of all deactivation or relaxtion processes < or equal 1
2) Temperature: as temp goes up, fluorescence goes down due to quenching (by O2).
3) Viscosity: as it increases, F increases
4) pH (change in F between protonated and deprotonated form)
5) Dissolved O2
6) Molecular structure: more efficient with extended Pi bonds, more rigid, and subsituent groups (ex: Halogens)

question

What is the fluorescence equation?

answer

F = 2.3(Fi)EbcPo

E: molar absorbtivity, Po = more intense light
F = kC

question

What the three deviations from linearity that could occur for fluorescnece?

answer

1) A is less than 0.05
2) self-quenching
3) self-absorbance
2+3 eliminated when you work at mM concentration of below.

question

What are the two strategies for analyzing non-fluorescent compounds?

answer

1) Quenching: one molecule collides with another molecule and deactivates fluorescent compound w/o emitting light: need constant amount of fluorophore and varying amounts of analyte
2) Derivitization with fluorescing compound: Analyte + fluorophore --> analyte:fluorophore

question

What is a disadvantage of qualitative analysis for Fluoresence molecular spectroscopy?

answer

You get broad peaks, and therfore minmial structural information.

question

What are some advantages for fluorescence spectroscopy?

answer

1) not as many compounds fluorescence: fewer interferences, narrower range of functional groups
2) can measure both emission and excitation spectra

question

With respect to fluorescence spec, discuss the differences between emission and excitation?

answer

Emission: 1 band of excitation wavelengths, measure fluoresence intensity versus emission wavelengths
Excitation: scan wavelengths, and where you get Abs you detect fluorescence; one band of emission wavelengths, mreasure FI vs. excitiaton wavelength.

question

With respect to Fluorescence instrument, discuss differences with excitation and emission monochromator.

answer

1) For emission scan, excitation monochromator is fixed at lamba max for absorbance, and emission monochromator scans.
2) For excitation scan, emission mono is fixed and excitation mono scans.

question

What is the sample placed at 90 degrees in a fluorescence instrument?

answer

Because F takes place in full degress equally, and the only configuration we DON'T want to use is 180 degrees because you get scattered light due to the excitation light going trhough.

question

What are two types of light sources that can be used for fluorescence spectroscopy?

answer

Remember F is proportion is Po!
1) Continuum source: Deuterium and W (all wavelengths, but not all powerful at all wavelengths).
2) Line source: cannot scan exciation spectrum, but its powerful (Hg lamp, and Lasers)

question

What are two types of vibrational spectroscopy?

answer

1) Infrared absorbance
2) Raman

question

Paint the classical picture of infrared absorbance!

answer

It's a simple molecule: a spring with force constant, k attached to 2 balls, m.
2 things that affect vibration:
1) Force constant single < double < triple
2) Mass of atoms

question

Paint the quantum mechanical picture of Infrared absorbance@

answer

Vibrational energies are quantized; E = (n+1/2)hv
delta n = +/- 1 (can only go from 0 to 1)
really looks like an anharmonic potential.
delta n = 2, 3, 4 are weak overtones.
selectrion rule 2: must be dipole moment and is must change.

question

What are the qualitative aspects of IR spectroscopy?

answer

a. use intensity and peak position to identify compound
b. computer search algorithms
c. need pure compound

question

What are some quantitative aspects of IR spectroscopy?

answer

1) Beer's law
2) use same quantitative techniques of Uv-Vis.
3) Sharp peaks: more susceptible to non-linearity.

question

What are the solid sampling methods for IR spec?

answer

1) mull: small amt of solid mixed with hydrocarbon and put between salt plates. its not quantitive and oil has its own peaks.
2) KBr pellets
3) Solution: fixed pathlength salt cell, but solvent has peaks
4) Attenuated Total Reflectance

question

Explain Attenuated Total Reflectance.

answer

The crystal is either Zn, Se, or diamond.
Basically, part of the electric field of photon gets into sample and is absorbed. So it just interacts with the surface; not transmitting light.

question

What are the liquid sampling methods for IR spec?

answer

1) ATR
2) Salt windows: can't control pathlength
3) fixed pathlength cell for quantitative. Spacer ensures the pathlength is fixed.

question

Two types of instruments for gas sampling methods for IR spec?

answer

1) Dispersive: need all components to transmit and detect IR light. Having a monochromator to detect IR light is difficult.
2) Fourier Transform

question

What are the advantages of FT-IR?

answer

1) Multiplex advantage = acquire entire spectrum at one time (no drift).
2) High wavelength accuracy
3) Through put advantage: no monochromator, but you use a Michaelson-Interferometer.

question

What is the basic purpose of the Michaelson-Interferomater?

answer

Takes the waveform from 10^14 Hz to 10^3 Hz. It splits the light intensity in 1/2: 1/2 goes to the fixed mirror, 1/2 goes to movable mirror.
The movable mirror delays the waveform, so when it comes back to beam splitter, they recombine.

question

What gives you a measure of how much you slow down the translation process with a Michaelson-interferomater?

answer

The translation factor: f = (2Vm/C)* V

and you can get resolution = 1/ retardation.
Retardation = 2 (M - F)

question

What are the requirements for the movable mirror?

answer

1) speed must be constant
2) position of mirror must be known exactly at any time
3) must be planar as it moves; it moves at a rate of 0.01 - 10cm/sec
4) must be able to determine a precise sampling interval ( have to measure in exact same place)
5) must be able to determine accurate retardation = 0.

question

Is the laser the light source in a Michaelson-interferogram?

answer

NO! The laser is used to ensure that the measurement is made in the exact same place.
White light source is determine an accurate retardation = 0.

question

At more _____________, the interferogram has one sharp peak, and gives an accurate reading.

answer

wavelengths

question

What are the 2 most common light sources for Michaelson interferograms?

answer

composed of inert solids; heat 1500 K to 2200 K (blackbody radiation)
1) Nernst glower: rare earth oxide
2) Globar: silican carbide
3) Tungsten lamp: could use it

question

What are three types of detectors for FTIR?

answer

1) Thermal Detector
2) Pyroelectric detector
3) Photoconducting

question

Give me some info on thermal detectors and two types of them.

answer

Need a material with a low heat capacity (sensitivity) and need to minimize thickness (get rid of extra heat quickly)
1) Thermo coupler: temp dependent voltage
2) Bolometer: Temp dependent resistance

question

Give me some info on pyroelectric detectors.

answer

They are the most common and inexpensive; based on time dependent capacitance.
Fast time response

question

What is the best type of detector for FTIR?

answer

Photoconducting (or a semiconductor); must be cooled to avoid thermal noise (prefer liq. N2).

question

Why isn't FTIR good for quantitative analysis?

answer

1) can get evaporation
2) selective interaction with diamond interface
3) low sensitivyt (only interact with first few nm of sample)
4) polychromatic deviations due to broad IR

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