Text and Traditions II Final Exam – Flashcards

Created a new administrative system where nearly a hundred provinces were grouped into 12 diocese that were each headed by an official called a vicar. These dioceses were grouped into four prefectures that were split among the east and the west. Each side was governed by a tetrarchy (2 Augusti and 2 Caesars). --Due to inflation, he had to issue an edict that established maximum wages and prices for the entire empire. It was applied mostly to the east, but was largely unenforceable. The decline of coins in circulation caused him to collect taxes and make government payments in produce.

i. Emperor was changed to be seen as a divinely sanctioned monarch whose will was law. The Roman senate was stripped of power and just became a council of Rome. ii. The army was expanded to 400,000 men and included units filled with Germans. By the end of his reign a new organization of the army was in place. Military forces were split into garrison troops that were the first line of defense, and mobile units that could support the frontier troops when needed. iii. He managed to introduce a new gold coin and new silver coins that remained in circulation during his reign. iv. He was involved in the construction of a new capital city in the east, Constantinople. He was also the first emperor to build churches for the Christian church, such as St. Peter's Basilica and the Arch of Constantine. He gave grants to Christian leaders in Rome to allow them to have larger roles in the city. v. He issued the Edict of Milan, allowing for the toleration of Christianity. vi. Overall, they enlarged the administrative bureaucracies and sharply separated the civil and military bureaucracies.

Their financial reforms were successful temporarily, but sooner or later, they fell through since such authoritarian policies crushed the chances of survival for the late Roman Empire.

1. While the structure of the government was intact, the Ostrogoths leader, Theodoric, created separate systems of rule for the Ostrogoths and the Romans. The Italian population was ruled with the Romans under Roman officials while the Ostrogoths were ruled under Ostrogoth rule. The Ostrogoths also had sole control over the army. 2. Clovis, Frank ruler, spread his kingdom from the Pyrenees in the west to German islands in the east (France and western Germany) by claiming that he was defending the Catholic faith. 3. The most important political development for the Frankish kingdom was the rise of Charles Martel, mayor of palace of Austria in 714 who defended Muslims and was virtually leader of the 3 Mervovingium kingdoms (the broken up Frankish kingdom). 4. Laws that prevented intermarriage were ended under the Visigothic Kingdom.

1. The new noble families, established under Clovis' sons, took advantage of their positions to expand their own lands and wealth at the expense of the monarchy.

1. The need for counts to rule in the old Roman city-state allowed for a fusion of Latin and German cultures. 2. Under Clovis' sons, a new nobility formed with the Frankish society and the old Gallo-Roman sensorial class. 3. There was a fusion of Gallo-Roman and Frankish cultures and peoples.

i. German society, like Roman, was based firmly in the family; but the German family was an extended one, the center of social organization, with relatives of various kinds included. ii. In the German family the woman belonged to the man: to her father when young, then to her husband. Uncles or fathers arranged marriages for the good of the family. A widow could hold property without a male and adultery was viewed as pollution of the woman and her child. Even so, divorce was easy to obtain and women just went back to their fathers. iii. German justice was more personal than Roman justice. Justice could lead to brutal fights in the street, so an alternative method was put in place. Fines for violations were called wergeld, which means "man money" and was based on the value of the individual involved. iv. A peculiarity of German justice was the ordeal, in which justice was obtained illogically by having the accused submit to a dangerous act. Successful completion of the act, was proof of innocence. v. The German system of compurgation obtained justice by having supporters take oaths that supported the accused claims of innocence. vi. Concepts of kingship and customary law replaced Roman governmental structure.

i. During this time the power of the papacy and of church administration grew stronger. ii. To solve the problem caused by heresy, councils came to be the decisive courts of ecclesiastical justice. iii. Another result of heresy was the growth of intellectual pursuits, the recognition that educated, orthodox individuals could keep the church on the right doctrinal path. iv. In a world where everyone was becoming Christian, there was a need for deeper signs of devotion, and this need was filled with the advent of the monastic vocation. v. With frontiers thrown open, missions to pagans people, both on and beyond the borders of the Roman Empire, became more common.

vi. St. Augustine was important in establishing views on sexual desires where either celibacy or marriage were the only options. But for marriage, sex was only for procreation. vii. Jerome purified pagan literature to use to further Christian faith. He also made the Latin Vulgate, a bible translated into Latin that soon became the standard edition used in the Middle Ages. viii. The doctrine of Petrine supremacy, based on the belief that the bishops occupied a preeminent position in the church, was grounded in Scripture. The Bishop was considered Peter's successor, the "vicars of Christ". The Bishop of Rome soon became the pope from papa meaning father. The bishop had an active imperial government and independent political role. ix. Pope Gregory the Great compiled Rome and its surrounding territories into one administrative unit, the Papal States. He sent missionaries to convert England and the pagans in Germanic Europe to Christianity. x. The monastic view point was one that was based on solidarity from civilization.

i. Benedict stressed the importance of living in community, rather than the hermitic life of many Eastern monks. ii. Benedict's Rule set down definite patterns of behavior for the monks of his community, both in their work and in their worship. iii. While the original Order of St. Benedict was for men, women's orders were established along the same standards as those of the men. iv. The Benedictines were the missionaries to pagan peoples and were responsible for the conversion of many German tribes. v. Their monasteries and schools brought education to people formerly outside the Roman Empire and helped preserve and strengthen their cultural heritage.

i. Irish 1. St. Patrick was the most famous monk and was considered the "founder of Irish Christiaity". 2. Since Ireland was isolated from the Roman world, their Christianity developed along different lines. 3. Monasteries were the fundamental unit of Church. 4. Abbots were above Bishops. 5. Education was important and they were responsible for converting the Angles and Saxons to Christianity. ii. England 1. Pagan festivals were given new names and incorporated into the Christian Calendar. 2. They traveled to the European continent to carry on conversions. 3. A fusion of Irish and Roman Christianity occurred. iii. Intellectual 1. Cassiodorus used Classical works while treasuring scripture above all else. 2. He was also responsible for coming up with the seven liberal arts: a. Trivium- grammar, rhetoric, and dialect or logic b. Quadrivium- arithmetric, geometry, astronomy, and music.

a. The Eastern Roman Empire was gradually reduced in size until it was essentially made up only of the Greek lands surrounding Constantinople, which by the 8th century was transformed into the Byzantine Empire. b. It faced constant threats of invasion from Bulgars to the north and Muslims to the south and east and later even from Christians to the west, never completely secure until its demise in 1453. c. It slowly lost touch with the Latin kingdoms of the West. d. While it remained a distant image of Roman survival to people in Western Europe, it ceased to be a Roman state. e. In Byzantium, unlike Western Europe with its popes and kings, church and state were one, with the emperor supreme over both authorities. f. A new administrative unit, a theme, combined military and civilian jobs into the hands of one person. g. The rise of Islam was a huge problem at this time. h. It was a Christian and Greek state, where a lot of artistic talent was poured into the churches and spiritual principles were deeply permeated into art. i. The use of religious images was outlawed by Emperor Leo III, but the bishop disagreed. j. The stance was reversed, but the damaged was already done. This ultimately resulted in the separation of the Church into the Roman Catholics and the Greek Orthodoxy k. The emperor had absolute power and was crowed in a sacred ceremony. l. Lots of energy was spent on war, where literature was filled with war books.

i. Muhammad taught that there was but one God, whose name was Allah. ii. Muhammad was the last and greatest prophet of Allah, and Allah's will was known in the holy book, the Qur'an. iii. Islam, or submission to the will of God, is not just a system of theology but a way of life, with specific rules of behavior. Thus Islamic society behaves in certain prescribed ways. iv. The Five Pillars of Islam are to be followed by everyone. --1. Declaration that there is no God but Allah and Muhammad is his Prophet. --2. Prayer 5 times a day --3. Giving money to the poor and needy --4. Observance of the Holy month of Ramadan --5. A pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in a lifetime if one is able. v. The law code, the Shari'a, provides believers with a set of prescriptions to regulate their daily lives. vi. Marriages are arranged by parents and contact between unmarried men and women is discouraged. vii. Those that followed were guaranteed a place in an eternal paradise

i. Muslims saw no separation between religious and political authority. ii. The Arabic tribal jihad permitted and even encouraged conquest of territory in the name of Allah, although conversion to the true faith was strictly voluntary. iii. The world of Islam successfully preserved its conquest through the rule of caliphs, men with the authority of the faith behind them. iv. Muhammad and early caliphs took up Arab tribal custom of raizzia or raid, in the struggle against their enemies.

a. Farming i. Cultivation of new lands was difficult with implantations of time not allowing for enough time to prepare the grounds for planting. There was also a long held belief that trees were sacred that still lingered even after conversion to Christianity. Because of this, less than 10% of the land was cultivated. ii. The heavy soils in these area also proved to be an issue as plowing was not easy. iii. Land was left unplowed every other year to regain fertility, but still produced low yields. b. Climate i. Natural disasters were a threat, on top of low yields leading to low stock piles for the hard times. ii. Changes in rain could cause meager harvests, famine, and dietary deficiencies that kept people open to diseases. This was a time of low life expectancy.

i. Charlemagne's father Pepin established the strong relationship between the Bishop of Rome and the Frankish king. ii. Pepin subdued the pope's enemies and granted him land in Rome and the surrounding area, while Charlemagne added most of northern Italy to the landholding safe for the papacy. iii. The Pope therefore thought of Charlemagne as his protector and the greatest of Christian monarchs, worthy of the title emperor. iv. When Pope Leo III crowned him Roman Emperor on Christmas, 800, it set the precedent, observed throughout the Middle Ages, that anyone named Roman Emperor would receive his crown from the Bishop of Rome.

i. Political 1. The administration of the empire depended on counts, who Charlemagne later tried to limit the power of by forcing them to move around every so often and deal with lands outside their family possessions. 2. He restored the church by creating new bishoprics, archbishoprics, restoring old ones, and making sure the clergy did their jobs. He also made church officials restore churches. ii. Intellectual 1. He revived Classical studies and took efforts to preserve Latin culture in the monasteries. Scriptoria were established for monks to copy early Christianity works, like the bible and treaties, but also Classical Latin works. 2. Texts were written on parchment or sheepskin and downed in covers decorated with jewels and precious metals. Scribes also created a new writing style called Carolingian minuscule (hand printing rather than cursive). 3. He created a palace school and encouraged others to come learn where Alcuin taught Liberal Arts (mentioned in chapter 7) iii. Daily Life 1. Marriages were still arranged by the father or uncle, but brides over 15 had to approve the husband or the marriage would not be recognized in the church. Monogamy was emphasized and the right to prohibit divorce was established by the church. 2. Nuclear families were established where the husband ruled the wife, but the wife had control of her household and children, regardless of age. 3. Celibacy and complete abstinence was considered ideal, but marriage could be used if abstinence prove too hard (lesser of the two evils). Sex was allowed within marriage for the purpose of creating children. Contraception was prohibited, abortions were condemned, and infanticide was condemned. Unwanted children could be dropped off at monasteries and convents to be raised as nuns and monks.

a. Viking settlements had been established throughout Europe because of their exploration, but they were still assimilated into European civilization. b. The inability of royal authorities to protect their people from the Viking attacks led them to turn to the local aristocrat to provide security for them. This caused the aristocrats to increase strength, prestige, and assume more of the functions of the local government previously held by the king. This led to a new political and military order.

i. A fief was a gift of land from one man to another. ii. The man who gave the fief was the lord of the vassal who received it. The vassal was in turn lord of the peasants who worked his land. iii. The vassal took an oath of homage, to be the lord's "man," or servant in times of need. Service usually took the form of military support as a knight in times of war. Service usually took the form of military support as a knight in times of war.

i. The central economic unit of medieval society was the manor, owned by an aristocrat, a lord who spent his time fighting battles or engaging in tournaments. ii. The land on which the manor was established was a fief given to the lord by a greater lord than he, one who owned a much larger portion of land. iii. The manor was an agricultural estate farmed by peasants, some free but many of them serfs who were bound to the land. iv. Peasants worked half of the land for their lord and half of it for themselves, but many times they had to share part of their own crops with the lord. Peasants, freemen and serfs, made up perhaps ninety percent of the populations of Europe. v. The manorial system provided security in an uncertain world, but it accorded peasants with little opportunity of advancement.

a. After years of external threats, the empire defeated most of its enemies and extended its religious and cultural influence over Slavic nations like Russia. b. As a result of the Photian controversy, the Eastern and Western Churches separated, and Byzantium's isolation from Western civilization grew greater. c. Prosperity returned, however, and this proved to be one of its wealthiest and most affluent ages.

a. The Southern Slavs were converted to Eastern Orthodox Christianity. They created the Slavonic alphabet, translated the bible into Slavonic, and developed Slavonic church services. b. The Eastern Slavs had problems with the Vikings. Swedish Vikings (Varangians) invaded the Slavs by rivers and became involved with civil wars with them, coming to dominate them. By marrying Slav women, the Viking ruling class started to mesh with the Slav's population; they even accepted Slav names.

a. This was a period of high educational achievement for the Islamic world, a time when it surpassed both the Catholic and Byzantine societies in learning and erudition. b. The Islamic world saw the establishment of dynasties (families that ruled their kingdoms from secure, highly cultured cities) over the older caliphates. c. Baghdad became the center of a large trade empire that extended into Europe, Asia, and Africa, adding to Islamic wealth. d. Under Abd al-Rahman (912-961), a society was created that allowed toleration of all religions and support for writers and artists, leading to a flourishing culture. e. Arabic became international tongue, with Greek, Syrian, and Persian scientific and philosophical works being translated into it. They had achievements in mathematics and natural sciences such as a number system including zero, the invention of algebra, naming stars, and perfecting the astrolabe. They also created a medical encyclopedia on diseases and the spread of them through water supplies.

i. A warmer climate and an expansion of available cultivated land. ii. The three-field system of crop rotation made land more fertile. iii. Dams and canals enabled farmers to harness water and fertilize more land. iv. The use of iron allowed for the caccura, a heavy, wheeled plow that was used to turn heavy soil and allow it to drain. v. Collars and horseshoes gave them greater and more efficient use of horse power. vi. This lead to cooperative agricultural villages because animals and machinery were expensive for an individual family to own.

i. Peasants 1. Their lives were largely dominate by the seasons for crops. 2. They spent time preparing the ground, killing excess livestock, plowing land, and weeding and sheep shearing, depending on the season. ii. Aristocrats 1. Lady of the castle was in charge of overseeing the food supply of the castle.

i. Cities grew up around castle fortifications. ii. Aristocrats encouraged the creation of trade fairs, where goods could be exchanged, usually in the burgs, or new cities. iii. Better ships and more secure sea routes contributed to a revival of trade with the East. iv. The demand for wool products led to new markets across Europe and abroad. v. The most fortunate beneficiaries of the revival in trade were Flanders in Northern Europe and the Italian peninsula.

i. They grew up around old castle fortifications and therefore were called burghs. ii. They sponsored fairs, where people from far and wide could exchange goods, and thus became permanent centers of trade. iii. They were crowded, sometimes dangerous, and always polluted; but they were also places where people and their ideas could be exchanged and were the centers of creative thought and work. iv. They fought for and were often granted "charters" by the kings, thus having certain rights and privileges formally and officially acknowledged. v. In these cities a new way of life developed, and in them the idea of "citizenship" first rose after many centuries of disuse. vi. Guilds were established where all the people of a certain trade followed a set of rules regulating how work was done, how it was sold, and who could do it.

a. Intellectual i. Monastic and cathedral schools, followed by universities, became the centers of intellectual and cultural life in the High Middle Ages. ii. There the Greek and Roman classics were revived and studied. iii. The scholars there debated the issues of faith and reason, creating what we call Scholastic Thought. b. Cultural i. The most impressive literary form of the times may be found in chansons de geste, epic stories of heroic deeds. ii. The wealth and influence of the Catholic Church led to the building of the greatest cathedrals of all time, first in the Romanesque and later in the Gothic styles.

i. England 1. William the Conqueror developed a tax system to fund royal programs and a system of royal courts to ensure royal commands were carried out. 2. Henry II centralized power by imposing a uniform English code of laws to replace the various local ones. 3. On the other hand, the English nobles forced John to grant them rights under the Magna Carta. 4. Under Edward I, the English Parliament gained great power alongside the king. ii. France 1. Philip II created a royal bureaucracy, answerable only to him, to collect revenues and administer justice. 2. Philip IV broadened the powers of the king over finances and justice; and although he created a French Parliament, it never had the power of the one in England.

1. Political a. Christian reconquest of Spain was attempting to knock out the Muslims. b. As armies took over land, it was distributed among those making the conquests and new Christian colonists. c. Special laws were passed for those that resided in the newly conquered lands to making them more appealing. 2. Religious a. Christians spread their religion and Muslims were either kicked out, killed, or put under Christian rule. b. In Castile, King Alfonso X encouraged the continued development of a cosmopolitan culture shared by Christians, Jews, and Muslims.

1. Political a. German kings wanted to expand their empire to Italy. b. They compromised with the Italian independent cites by subjects. c. Neither Germany nor Italy became a unified national monarchy allowing them to pay an annual fee rather than become German in the Middle Ages, and would not become united until the nineteenth century. 2. Religious a. The Pope did not allow King Frederick I to use church officials as royal administrators if he was to conquer the northern Roman Empire.

1. Political a. Denmark, Norway, and Sweden emerged with a noticeable political structure. b. The three fought with each other over the throne. c. Teutonic knights and the Mongols both invaded Europe with the knights attacking Prussia from the west, and the Mongols attacking Poland and Hungry from the east. 2. Religious a. The three all were converted to Christianity under the belief that the organized religion was necessary for an organized state. b. The fundamental and unifying force of early Russia was Christianity. c. Prussia became Christian due to the Teutonic knight invasions.

i. Pope Gregory VII decided that the Holy Roman Emperor could no longer "invest" German bishops with their symbols of church authority. ii. Emperor Henry IV refused the new policy, and the two engaged in a battle that is known as the Investiture Controversy.

i. In 1122, a later pope and king agreed that church officials would receive symbols of their spiritual power from a papal representative and those of their temporal power from a representative of the king. ii. The German king kept one kind of power, even over clerics, and the pope took back another kind of power over churchmen. iii. For the German lands this created a separation of powers, even when both church and state had some power of the same individuals. iv. Popes now claimed the right to dispose kings under certain circumstances.

i. The pope and the papal curia of the High Middle Ages reached the apex of papal power. ii. The curia was staffed by cardinals who served as major advisors and administrators to the pope and were in charge of choosing a new Pope when the current one died. iii. New religious orders proliferated and grew by leaps and bounds as a religious revival swept across Europe. iv. Pope Innocent III expanded the pope's sway over both religious and temporal affairs. v. The Cistercians led in church reform, and stressed militant devotion to the service of the Christian faith. vi. Franciscans stressed the need to sacrifice all earthly attachments in order to serve God in poverty, and Dominicans sought to wipe out heresy and preach the true Word of God.

i. Women volunteered for monastic vocations in great numbers and helped lead the revival of devotion that reached even the common Christian populations. ii. Mostly women came from aristocracy and religion was convenient for families who did not want to find husbands for their daughters. iii. Hilgard of Bingen was an important female composer and major contributor to Gregorian chart.

i. The medieval church considered heresy, or wrong thinking, as the greatest ofdangers to the Christian faith. ii. Heretics were slaughtered in great numbers, even those who took refuge from papal armies in churches. iii. Judaism came to be seen as another form of heresy, and in some places Jews were treated with the same brutality as Christian non-conformists. iv. Jews were accused of killing Christ, and they were made to wear distinguishing clothing or marks of their faith. v. Jews were expelled from such countries as England and France, and many took refuge in Poland, which at that time was more tolerant than other places.

Christian soldiers went on Crusades at the urging of Popes to free the Holy Landof Muslim control.

i. They initially won victories there and set up four Christian kingdoms inPalestine. ii. Their victories were accompanied, however, by horrible massacres and by the theft of precious treasures from holy places. iii. Eventually the Muslims organized resistance and slowly took back the lands lost to the Christian crusaders. iv. No permanent kingdoms survived the thirteenth century's Muslim offensive against the Christians, but crusading whetted the West's appetite for foreign goods, and soon Westerners set out to explore the world.

a. In 1347, rats on ships brought fleas infected with the bacillus that caused the Bubonic Plague, or Black Death. b. Within four years, between 1347 and 1351, the Death had spread across much of Europe. c. Between 25 and 50 percent of the population of Europe died of the disease. d. The Plague led to fanatical religious practices such as flagellation, when people whipped themselves to atone for the sins they believed had caused the disease. e. Wealthy and powerful people fled to country. f. People began to live for the moment and threw themselves into sexual and alcoholic orgies. g. Conditions for the wealthy declined while life for peasants improved. h. Jews were accused of causing the plague by poisoning town wells. i. It also led to economic problems, and economic woes led to peasant uprisings both in the countryside and in cities.

a. Nations were adversely affected by continuing warfare, such as the Hundred Years' War between England and France. b. In England, there was dynastic instability as various royal families vied for the throne. c. In France, a strain of insanity in the royal family prevented the country from resisting the English in the Hundred Years' War. d. The Bubonic Plague killed between 25 and 50 percent of the populations in several countries and led to economic dislocation and peasant uprisings. e. The Holy Roman Empire was weakened by the elective system of choosing monarchs; and Italy continued to be controlled and exploited by foreign rulers.

a. Kings resented and resisted papal claims to temporal authority and supremacy over them. b. Pope Boniface VIII's dramatic claims of temporal power led to conflict with Philip IV of France and the Pope's death. c. Philip made certain that the next Pope would be subservient to him, and the papal residence was moved to Avignon in Southern France. d. The decision of the Pope in 1378 to return the residence to Rome led to a schism in which two popes claimed to be the true Bishop of Rome and successor to Saint Peter. e. Disgust with papal conduct led many churchmen to say that Councils of Bishops, not Popes, should rule the Church.

a. Writers of the fourteenth century began using vernacular languages instead of the Latin preferred by writers of the Middle Ages. b. Dante and Chaucer, using the vernacular Italian and English, explored both religious and secular themes in their writings. c. The woman writer Catherine de Pizan argued for the intellectual and moral equality of men and women. d. The Italian artist Giotto broke with the dominant Byzantine style and introduced a realism that would form the basis for Renaissance art a century later. e. The Black Death at mid-century introduced a new pessimism into art, with the subject of death taking a central place.

a. The Black Death led to city ordinances requiring better sanitation, arguing that filthy streets and houses led to disease. b. On the other hand, fear of spreading the disease led to the closing of public bath houses, which resulted in a dirtier population. c. The fear of death led to earlier marriages. d. The need to replenish the labor supply led people to have more children and thus have larger families. e. The century saw a greater regimentation of gender roles, with women being forced into subordinate positions.

a. Unlike the rural Middle Ages, the Renaissance was an urban society, centered in the independent city-states of Italy. b. After the calamities of the fourteenth century, the Age of Renaissance was a time of rising optimism and expectations. c. Its bankers and tradesmen were the first capitalists of the early modern period, replacing in power and influence the titled aristocrats of the Middle Ages. d. Unlike medieval writers, thinkers, and artists, men of the Renaissance looked back to Greece and Rome for their literary, philosophical, and artistic models. e. For them the proper study for man was man; and they created a man-centered rather than a God-centered society.

a. Social structure inherited from the Middle Ages, fundamentally divided into three estates. b. A lack of peasants allowed for more and more peasants to become legally free. c. The Renaissance town or city was home to a multitude of townspeople widely separated socially and economically. d. Slaves were used as skilled workers, making handcrafted good for their masters, or as household workers. e. Girls were used as nursemaids and boys were used as playmates. f. Illegitimate children were often a result of masters taking slaves as concubines. g. By the end of the fifteenth century, slavery declines as many slaves had been freed by their owners for humanitarian reasons.

a. Machiavelli's Italy, while theoretically part of the Holy Roman Empire, was a collection of small city-states. b. Each city was ruled by a strong family, with the head of the family also the head of state. c. These leaders, dukes or princes, were insecure, threatened by enemies within and without. d. Machiavelli believed politics in such an environment should be realistic. e. He explained in The Prince that it is better to be feared than loved. The prince who is feared is more secure than the one who wants to be liked.

i. Humanism was a philosophic and artistic movement that placed man at the center of the universe. ii. It used classical literature, philosophy, and art as its models.

i. Renaissance humanists revered and imitated Greek and Roman writers and artists. ii. They established schools that used these classical models. iii. They also based their political theories on them.

i. Italian Renaissance artists focused on the human form and used it to make their statements about beauty and truth. ii. They imitated the styles of the ancient Greeks and Romans, in sculpture, painting, and architecture. iii. They used the large spaces of church walls to develop sophisticated techniques through which to show perspective and realism.

i. Northern Renaissance artists learned from the Italians, but generally they worked in smaller spaces, on panels and on the pages of books. ii. Their attention to realistic detail often surpassed that of their Italian predecessors.

a. The monarchies of the late fifteenth centuries emerged from decades and in some cases centuries of conflict and controversy. b. Monarchs of this age developed more dependable methods of financial collection and dispersion than their predecessors knew. c. They brought all power in their countries to central locations and managed the state personally. d. They built larger armies that would be prepared at all times to defend them and depended on them for their living. e. Since many of them ruled states that were just emerging from centuries of disunity, they emphasized nationhood more than medieval kings had done.

i. Included popes from the end of the Great Schism to the beginning of the Reformation. ii. Since they could not build dynasties over several generations, they relied on nepotism to promote their families' interests. iii. Pope Julius II tore down the old Basilica of St. Peter's and built the present one.

The focus was not so much on the Catholic Church as it was on personal gains of the popes and their families.

i. The Christian humanists were primarily Northern Europeans, who carried Italian humanist ideals to the field of Church reform. ii. They believed they could combine Christian theology with classical principles to make a new and better religious synthesis. iii. Erasmus, the most accomplished of these humanists, taught that true Christianity is following the example of Jesus, not adhering to rigid dogma. iv. He ridiculed the Church for its corruption and superstition, and his works strongly influenced Luther and other reformers.

Erasmus did not, however, want to see the Church split, and he refused to join Luther's divisive Reformation movement.

i. Luther's estrangement from the Church began with his opposition to the sale of indulgences in order to raise money for building projects in Rome. ii. As the argument grew, he also began to argue that a man is saved not by good works or following correct dogma but is justified by grace through faith. iii. The Church brought Luther to trial, where he refused to recant his writings, and he was excommunicated and condemned. iv. Not only did he survive being declared an outlaw, the Protestant movement spread across Europe and permanently divided the Church. v. Obviously the continent was ripe for such a division, and Luther provided the spark that lit a major conflagration.

i. Had the full support of the German princes and magistrates. ii. Problems with the Holy Roman Emperor allowed him time to spread his religion iii. The Schmalkaldic League formed from eight Lutheran princes and 11 Lutheran imperial cities, vowing to protect each other in case of attack. iv. Denouncing clergy celibacy and allowing everyone to be their own minister made the religion more personal.

a. Lutheranism i. Luther based his new denomination on his doctrine of justification by grace through faith. b. Calvinism i. Calvin added to this mix his doctrine of predestination. c. Zwinglianism i. Relics and images were abolished, all paintings and decorations were removed. ii. Mass was replaced by a new liturgy consisting of Scripture reading, prayer, and sermons. iii. Music was eliminated. iv. Monasticism, pilgrimages, the veneration of saints, clerical celibacy, and the pope's authority were all abolished. d. Anabaptists i. The Anabaptists adopted the idea that the Eucharist is a symbolic memorial of the Last Supper. e. Difference from Catholicism i. All of these differences from Catholic teaching made the divisions of Christianity firm and lasting, so much so that even now there are few signs of real reconciliation.

a. Across Europe before the Reformation, marriage was a sacrament, yet celibacy was considered the most holy attitude toward sex. b. After the Reformation, both Catholic and Protestant churches were more forceful in extolling the virtues of married life and the family. c. In both communities, however, women were still taught that their primary duties in life were to be wives and mothers. d. Protestant ridicule of what it considered superstition made the more radical forms of religious devotion suspect and religion in general more rational. e. Personal devotions and collective worship services became the norm, and some "pagan" religious practices that had attached themselves to the churches declined.

a. Although too late to coax the Protestants back into the fold, the Catholic Church did respond to the calls for reform in the sixteenth century. b. At the Council of Trent, the Church instituted moderate practical reforms, while stressing the eternal validity of Catholic theology. c. The Holy Office (or Inquisition) was instituted to ferret out and erase doctrinal errors. d. The Society of Jesus, recognized in 1540, trained missionaries to seek the conversion both of Protestants and pagans. e. The Roman Catholic Church entered a new age, now only one denomination of the Western Christian Church it had once ruled and then lost.

a. Europeans read and believed the fantasy literature popular in the fifteenth century and were curious to see the wonders it described. b. The Polo family's trip to China and back inspired many others to look for ways to the Far East. c. The Crusades whetted European appetites for foreign products, and one of the strongest motives for exploration and expansion was economic. d. The Crusades also inspired Europeans to send missionaries to convert the "pagan" world to the Christian faith. e. The phrase used to describe Spanish reasons for creating their empire in the Americas, "God, glory, and gold," sums up the motivation for European discovery and expansion.

a. Portugal i. Prince Henry the Navigator sponsored voyages of exploration to find a way around Africa to India and the Far East. b. Spanish i. Columbus, sailing under the flag of Aragon and Castile, discovered the Americas, although he died believing he had actually found a new route to Asia.

i. The Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494 gave papal approval to the division of all non-Christian lands in the world to Portugal and Spain. ii. Superior seamanship and armaments enabled the Portuguese and later the Spanish to discover and claim new lands. iii. The Portuguese Empire of the eastern hemisphere established trading centers in India and the Far East, while the Spanish Empire of the western hemisphere established colonies throughout Central and South America. The Spanish, unlike the Portuguese, settled and mixed with native populations to form a new society.

i. The arrival of these nations in Africa led to the establishment of the slave trade, in which Africans were carried off to the Americas as slave labor. ii. After years of competition, the British replaced the Portuguese as the major European influence in India, remaining overlords of the subcontinent for two centuries. iii. Europeans established trading posts in Southeast Asia and colonies in areas that had no royal rule. iv. They established trading centers along the coast of China. v. They traded with Japan until their success in converting Japanese to Christianity caused the emperor to expel both missionaries and merchants. Dutch were allowed to stay because they did not allow missionary activity to interfere with trade interest

i. Almost from their arrival in Africa as traders, Europeans, following patterns established by Arab merchants, considered it perfectly legal and moral to buy and sell Africans as slaves. ii. At first, most African slaves were prisoners of war, taken after losing battles; but the slave trade was so lucrative that brokers encouraged raids on villages and the kidnapping of innocent people for sale and deportation. iii. The slave trade decimated the African population and led to a greater number of wars between tribes than had been known before the sixteenth century. iv. Religious and humanitarian groups called for an end to the slave trade, but it was too profitable to be stopped. v. France and England abolished slavery in their own countries, but it continued in their colonies and in those of other European nations.

Conquerors i. Trade between the European nations and their colonies introduced new products to Europe and European products to peoples around the world. ii. The first truly global economy, with both merits and faults, grew out of the era of European discovery and expansion. iii. Their successes around the world gave Europeans a feeling of superiority over other races. iv. They were able to create map projections that allowed them to represent the round surface of a sphere on a piece of flat paper. Conquered i. Africans experiences devastating losses of population from diseases. ii. Social and political structure ripped apart and replaced by European institutions, religion language, and culture. iii. Intermarriage was allowed in Latin America. iv. The Catholic Church controlled the lives of the Indians and converted them.

a. Mercantilism was an economic system in which a nation controlled its trade and industry for the enrichment of the nation, particularly the monarchy. b. It assumed that the amount of gold and silver bullion the nation possessed was the measure of national wealth; and the object of trade was to sell more than the nation bought. c. Colonies were required to trade only with the mother country, to avoid enriching other nations and to keep the wealth within the empire. d. Barriers to trade with other countries tied colonies to the mother country and usually enriched the mother country at the expense of the colonies. e. This control and management slowly gave way to freer international trade, and the first global economy was established.

a. The Reformation divided Europe into hostile camps and religious wars, which destabilized societies and economies. b. The Thirty Years' War, which involved most of the continental nations, devastated the economy of the German countries and led to a general economic decline across Europe. c. Witchcraft trials reflected the unsettled, paranoid character of most Western European nations during the whole of the century. d. Uprisings against established authorities brought further instability. e. All of which made both princes and intellectuals conclude that, in order to establish stability and ensure security, the best form of government was absolute monarchy.

i. Absolutism was the theory and practice of granting complete control of a nation to the monarch. ii. This meant that religion, politics, and the economy would be controlled by the ruler from his capital.

i. The move toward absolutism in France began with the work of Richelieu and reached its zenith with the reign of Louis XIV. ii. Louis gathered all the reins of government to himself at the Palace of Versailles and was able to control everything except religion. He was almost but not quite absolute. iii. He was unable to dictate to the established Roman Catholic Church, with its head in Rome, and had trouble controlling the minority Protestant Huguenots.

Bradenburg-Prussia i. The Hohenzollerns, an ambitious and talented series of kings, laid the foundation of a strong if small state in Brandenburg-Prussia. ii. Taking new lands as they became available and choosing the winning side in several ways, they were at least allowed to become kings and rule over an ever growing part of German speaking Europe. Austria i. Austria's Habsburg ruled over a kingdom that rivaled Brandenburg-Prussia for control of the German world. ii. While they could not take further German lands, they extended their borders over lands recently freed from Turkish control and lands with governments too weak to resist them: Hungary to the east, Bohemia to the north, and the Slavic to the north. Russia i. Peter the Great almost single handedly brought about the expansion and modernization of Russia, expanding at the price of weak and warring neighbors. ii. He reorganized the army and the central government while building a navy.

i. Charles I, who wanted to be an absolute monarch, went to war with the Parliament, was captured, and after being found guilty of treason was executed. ii. As leader of the Commonwealth, Oliver Cromwell dismissed Parliament and ruled as Lord Protector, but after his death Parliament returned to restore the

i. Civil war in England broke out, and after the death of King Charles in 1649, the monarchy and the House of the Lords were abolished and England was proclaimed a republic or commonwealth. ii. When being a republic became too unstable, England was one again a monarchy when Charles II, returning from France, accepted Parliament's powers and lived in comparative harmony with its laws. iii. When James II raised the specter of an ongoing Catholic monarchy, Parliament overthrew and exiled him and his newly born son and invited James' daughter Mary and her Dutch husband William of Orange to be dual monarchs. iv. The Bill of Rights, under which William and Mary agreed to rule, made King and Parliament equal rulers of the British state.

i. The Mannerist style at the start of this period expressed the order and balance that most Europeans missed and longed to have restored to their political and economic lives. ii. The Baroque which soon followed sought to demonstrate the grandeur of monarchs and the Christian faith, both of which were believed to bring order and stability. iii. Portraiture dominated much of the art of this era, when monarchs had the wealth to order their images preserved for the ages. iv. There were also many portraits of the rising business middle class, both demonstrated the wealth of this new part of the population.

The most lasting contributions to literature were made by playwrights, Shakespeare in England, Molière in France, both patronized by monarchs and supported by ticket purchases of the rising middle class.

a. While during the Middle Ages scholars praised the natural world as God's handiwork, and a fit topic for study, they also relied heavily on the work of ancient natural philosophers. b. Renaissance scholars recovered many ancient texts and in the process discovered that the revered authors of Greece and Rome often disagreed with each other about the natural world. c. Renaissance artists, in order to achieve realism and naturalism, carefully studied both nature and the human body, making discoveries that further called into question some ancient authorities. d. The early modern age of discovery required scientific studies of navigation, and their findings also questioned the validity of traditional learning. e. The sixteenth and seventeenth centuries saw scientists, many of them steeped in the mysteries of hermetic magic, take the first steps toward modern scientific inquiry.

i. Feeling the geocentric system was too complicated and that it failed to accord with the observed motions of the heavenly bodies, Copernicus came up with the heliocentric conception, where the sun was at the center of the universe. ii. His system consisted of eight spheres with the sun motionless in the center and the sphere of fixed stars at rest in the eighth sphere. The moon also revolved around the earth. iii. The earth experienced a daily rotation on its axis and a yearly rotation around the sun.

i. His theory stated that the universe was constructed on the basis of geometric figures and that the harmony of the human soul was mirrored in numerical relationships existing between the planets. ii. Orbits around the sun were not circular, but rather elliptical with the sun at one focus of the ellipse rather than the center. iii. Because of this shape, the speed of a planet was greater as it got closer to the sun and slower as it moved away. iv. The square of a planet's period of revolution was proportional to the cube of its average distance from the sun.

i. Galileo used a telescope he created to discover mountains and craters on the moon, four moon revolving around Jupiter, the phases of Venus, and sunspots. ii. He was a firm proponent of Copernicus's heliocentric system. iii. He found that if a uniform force was applied to an object, it would move at an accelerate speed rather than a constant speed. iv. He also discovered the principle of inertia, when he argued that a body in motion continues in motion forever unless deflected by an external force.

i. Newton is credited with inventing calculus, a mathematical, means of calculating rates of change. ii. He came up with his universal law of gravitation. iii. His laws of motion governed the planetary bodies as well as terrestrial objects. The three laws of motion are: 1. Every object continues in a state of rest or uniform motion in straight line 2. The rate of change of motion of an object is proportional to the force 3. Every action has an equal and opposite reaction. iv. Newton explained that every object in the universe was attracted to every other object by a force (gravity) that is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distances between them.

i. Ptolemaic is credited with coming up with the geocentric conception, where the universe was seen as a series of concentric spheres with a fixed or motionless earth at its center. ii. The earth was created from earth, air, fire, and water and was imperfect and constantly changing. iii. He believed there were 10 centric spheres in the system and beyond the tenth sphere lied Heaven, where God and all the saved souls were located.

i. He believed that a human being was a small replica of the lager world and that all parts of the universe were represented within each person. ii. The chemical reactions of the universe as a whole were reproduced in human beings on a smaller scale, meaning diseases were due to chemical imbalances that were localized in specific organs and could be treated by chemical remedies. iii. In order to cure diseases, Paraelsus used the theory "like cures like" where he believed that the poison that caused a disease would be its cure if used in proper form and quantity.

i. Vesalius emphasized practical research as the principle avenue for understanding human anatomy, ii. He clung to Galen's erroneous assentation of the belief that two different kinds of blood flowed through the veins and arteries.

i. He based his work on the observations and experiments, which led to him demolish old erroneous contentions. ii. Harvey demonstrated that the heart and not the liver was the beginning point of the circulation of blood, and that it made a complete circuit as it passed through the body. iii. He found that there were not two different types of blood flowing through veins and arteries, but rather the same blood.

a. Most men in the early modern era, even the scientists, considered women intellectually inferior to men, so much that they doubted women's ability to be scholars. b. Yet a number of women, usually encouraged by husbands, brothers, or fathers, proved to be outstanding scientists. c. Margaret Cavendish, an English aristocrat, was at the center of many scientific debates, but she was excluded from the Royal Society. d. Maria Winkelmann, who was trained in the German crafts guild system, was an astronomer who was denied a teaching post at the Berlin Academy because of her gender. e. Women, despite these setbacks, continued do research and paved the way for women to become fully accepted in scientific fields.

a. Descartes began by reflecting the doubt and uncertainty that seemed pervasive in the confusion of seventeenth century. b. He made a commitment to mind, mathematics, and a mechanical universe, his new system was doubt. He only believed things that his reason said were true. c. His famous quite is "I think therefore I am", proving that he existed. d. Descartes in the creator of Cartesian dualism, the absolute dualism of mind and body. His separation of mind and body allowed scientists to view matter as dead or inert, as something that was totally separate from themselves and could be investigated independently by reason.

i. Early in the new age of science, many universities founded chairs for scholars to pursue research and teach scientific methods. ii. Some aristocrats served as patrons for budding scientists.

i. After scientists developed a logical methodology for doing scientific research, the goals of science became much clearer and easily understood by a larger audience. ii. The Royal Society, approved by Charles II in 1662, and the Royal Academy, approved by Louis XIV in 1666, brought scientists together and let them share their discoveries. iii. The success of science, as it proved itself practical and an aid to progress, made it more acceptable to political and economic leaders.