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geocentric theory

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in the Middle Ages, the earth-centered view of the universe in which scholars believed that the earth was an immovable object located at the center of the universe

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Scientific Revolution

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a major change in European thought, starting in the mid-1500s, in which the study of the natural world began to be characterized by careful observation and the questioning of accepted beliefs

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Nicolaus Copernicus

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Polish cleric & astronomer; became interested in an old Greek idea that the sun stood at the center of the universe; studied planetary movements for 25+ years & reasoned that the stars, the earth, and the other planets revolved around the sun

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heliocentric theory

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the idea that the earth and the other planets revolve around the sun

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Tycho Brahe

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Danish astronomer; carefully recorded the movements of the planets for many years; produced mountains of accurate data based on his observations

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Johannes Kepler

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Brahe's assistant & mathematician; continued Brahe's work after his death; after studying Brahe's data, he developed mathematical laws that described the elliptical orbits of the planets; proved mathematically why planets revolve around the sun

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Galileo Galilei

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an Italian scientist; built his own telescope in 1609; used his telescope to make additional observations that supported the heliocentric theory; confirmed the heliocentric theory; he was persecuted by the church

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scientific method

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a logical procedure for gathering information about the natural world, in which experimentation and observation are used to test hypotheses

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Francis Bacon

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English statesman and writer; had a passionate interest in science; instead of reasoning from abstract theories, he urged scientists to experiment and then draw conclusions (empiricism)

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René Descartes

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developed analytical geometry (linked algebra and geometry); relied on mathematics and logic; believed that everything should be doubted until proved by reason

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Isaac Newton

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English scientist who discovered that the same force ruled motion of the planets and all matter on earth and in space (the law of universal gravitation)

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microscope

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first one was invented by Dutch maker of eyeglasses, Zacharias Janssen in 1590; was used to observe bacteria in tooth scrapings and blood cells for the first time by Anton van Leeuwenhoek in 1670s

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mercury barometer

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tool for measuring atmospheric pressure and predicting weather; developed by Evangelista Torricelli, one of Galileo's students, in 1643

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mercury thermometer

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made by German physicist Gabriel Fahrenheit in 1714; his showed water freezing at 32 degrees; Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius created another scale in 1742 that showed freezing at 0 degrees

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Andreas Vesalius

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Flemish physician; dissected human corpses and published his observations; his book, "On the Structure of the Human Body" (1543), was filled with detailed drawings of human organs, bones, and muscle

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Edward Jenner

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British physician; introduced a vaccine to prevent smallpox in the late 1700s; discovered that inoculation with germs from cowpox gave permanent protection from smallpox for humans; he used cowpox to produce the world's first vaccination

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Robert Boyle

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pioneered the use of the scientific method in chemistry; considered the founder of modern chemistry; proposed that matter was made up of smaller primary particles that joined together in different ways; his law: explains how volume, temperature, and pressure of gas affect each other

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Enlightenment

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an 18th-century European movement in which thinkers attempted to apply the principles of reason and the scientific method to all aspects of society

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Thomas Hobbes

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This political thinker was convinced by the horrors of the English War that all humans are naturally selfish and wicked. He argued, therefore, that strong governments are necessary to control human behavior. To avoid chaos, he said, people enter into a social contract. They give up their rights in exchange for law and order

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social contract

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the agreement by which people define and limit their individual rights, thus creating an organized society or government

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John Locke

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This political thinker felt that people are reasonable beings. He supported self-government and argued that the purpose of government is to protect the natural rights of people (life, liberty, property). If government fails to protect these natural rights, he said, citizens have the right to overthrow it

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philosophes

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(French word for philosophers) social critics during the Enlightenment; believed that people could apply reason to all aspects of life; the five concepts that formed the core of their beliefs are reason, nature, happiness, progress, and liberty

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Voltaire

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this philosophe's masterful use of satire got him into frequent trouble with the clergy, the aristocracy, and the government of France. Despite serving two prison terms and being exiled, he never stopped fighting for tolerance, reason, freedom of religion, and freedom of speech; "I do not agree with a word you say but will defend to the death your right to say it."

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Montesquieu

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influential French writer/philosophe; believed that Britain was the best-governed and most politically balanced country; proposed that separation of powers would keep any individual or group from gaining total control of the government; his ideas of checks & balances became the basis for the U.S. Constitution

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Rousseau

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this philosophe strongly disagreed with other philosophes on a number of matters. For instance, although most philosophes believed that reason, science, and art improve the lives of all people, he argued that civilization corrupts people's natural goodness

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Beccaria

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this philosophe's ideas greatly influenced criminal law reformers in Europe and North America. He argued against the use of torture and other common abuses of justice

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Mary Wollstonecraft

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In her essay "A Vindication of the Rights of Woman," this political thinker disagreed with Rousseau and rather, argued that women, like men, need education to become virtuous and useful. She also declared that women should have the same political rights as men

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Mary Astell

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In her book "A Serious Proposal to the Ladies," she addressed the lack of educational opportunities for women & used Enlightenment arguments about government to criticize the unequal relationship between men & women in marriage

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Emilie du Châtelet

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a woman who was fortunate enough to receive an education in the sciences; aristocrat trained as a mathematician and scientist; helped stimulate interest in science in France by translating Newton's work from Latin into French

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separation of powers

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division of power among different branches of government

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salon

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a social gathering of intellectuals and artists in which they would discuss ideas, like those held in the homes of wealthy women in Paris and other European cities during the Enlightenment

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Denis Diderot

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philosophe who created a large set of books to which many leading scholars of Europe contributed articles & essays; he called it "Encyclopedia" & began publishing first volumes in 1751; the "Encyclopedia" helped spread Enlightenment ideas to educate people all over Europe

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baroque

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relating to a grand, ornate style that characterized European painting, music, and architecture in the 1600s and early 1700s (can be seen in elaborate palaces like Versailles)

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neoclassical

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"new classical"; relating to a simple, elegant style (based on ideas and themes from ancient Greece and Rome) that characterized the arts in Europe during the late 1700s (Enlightenment)

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classical

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a light & elegant style of music that developed during the Enlightenment; Hayden, Mozart, and Beethoven are three composers in Vienna, Austria that rank among the greatest figures of this period in music

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novels

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lengthy works of prose fiction developed by writers in the 18th century; had carefully crafted plots, used suspense, and explored characters' thoughts and feelings; they were popular with a wide middle-class audience, who liked the entertaining stories written in everyday language

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enlightened despots

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18th-century European monarchs who were inspired by Enlightenment ideas to rule justly and respect the rights of subjects

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Joseph II of Austria

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the most radical royal reformer; son and successor of Maria Theresa; introduced legal reforms & freedom of press; supported freedom of worship; abolished serfdom and ordered that peasants be paid for their labor with cash

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Catherine the Great

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empress of Russia from 1762-1796; put in place limited reforms, but did little to improve the life of the Russian peasants; after massive uprising of serfs, she became convinced that she needed the nobles' support to keep her throne, so she kept serfdom; vastly enlarged the Russian empire

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Navigation Act

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British Parliament passed this trade law in 1651; this law prevented colonists from selling their most valuable products to any country except Britain; also, colonists had to pay high taxes on imported French and Dutch goods

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Stamp Act

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Parliament passed this law in 1765; colonists had to pay a tax to have an official stamp put on wills, deeds, newspapers, and other printed material

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Boston Tea Party

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(1773) to protest an import tax on tea, a group of colonists dumped a large load of British tea into Boston Harbor; King George III was infuriated and ordered the British navy to close the port of Boston

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Declaration of Independence

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a statement of the reasons for the American colonies' break with Britain, approved by the Second Continental Congress in 1776; reflects the ideas of John Locke and the Enlightenment in its eloquent argument for natural rights

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Thomas Jefferson

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political leader who wrote the Declaration of Independence

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checks and balances

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measures designed to prevent any one branch of government from dominating the others; was established because like Montesquieu, the delegates of the Congress distrusted a powerful central government controlled by one person or group

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federal system

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a system of government in which power is divided between a central authority and a number of individual states; set up by the Constitution

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Bill of Rights

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the first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution, which protect citizens' basic rights and freedoms; many of these rights had been advocated by Voltaire, Rousseau, and Locke

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reasons for the success of the American Revolution

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America had greater motivation, overconfident British generals made several mistakes, overseas war was expensive for British, France helped America

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Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo

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3 men who began developing the scientific method

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Articles of Confederation

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a plan of government in which all 13 individual states ratified a constitution in 1781 after declaring their independence; it established the United States as a republic, a government in which citizens rule through elected representatives

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Congress

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the initial government that was deliberately created weak; this was the only body of government established by the Articles (there were no executive or judicial branches); each state, regardless of size, had one vote in this body; it could declare war, enter into treaties, and coin money; had no power to collect taxes or regulate trade

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Constitution

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created a strong central government, but did not eliminate local governments; instead, it set up a federal system; begins with "We the People"; was signed by the delegates of the Congress on September 17, 1787; was formally added to the Bill of Rights

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Federalists

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supporters of the Constitution; they argued in their famous work, the "Federalist Papers", that the new government would provide a better balance between national and state powers; in order to gain support, they promised to add a bill of rights to the Constitution

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Antifederalists

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people who were against the Constitution; the Federalists' opponents; feared that the Constitution gave the central government too much power; they also wanted a bill of rights to protect the rights of individual citizens

West Civ Unit 2 Ch. 6: Enlightenment and Revolution – Flashcards

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