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Pre-Australopithecine

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Had a number of primitive attributes of humans but were more ape-like. They represent the first recognizable ancestors leading to humans. There are a limited amount of pre-australopithecine fossils since they date back to 7-6MYA.

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Sahelanthropus tchadensis

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The earliest pre-australopithecine found in Africa with possible evidence for bipedalism due solely to its skull being found by Michel Brunet.

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Orrorin tugenensis

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A pre-australopithecine species in East Africa that displayed some of the earliest evidence of bipedalism.

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Ardipithecus kadabba and ramidus

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A. kadabba- An early pre-A from the late Miocene to early Pliocene; evidence of perihoning complex (trait between humans and apes). A. ramidus: A later pre-A species from late Miocene to early Pliocence; evidence of both bipedalism and arboreal activity but no perihoning complex.

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Middle Awash Valley

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A place where Pliocene hominids can be found. This is the site (dated 4.4 MYA) where "Ardi" an A. ramidus species was found. Pelvis indicated full hominid status since Ardi walked upright.

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Australopithecine

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Early hominids of the genus Australopithecus of E. & S. Africa (~4 to 1 MYA). The most complete australopithecine skeleton, named Lucy (~3MYA). Australopithecines are ancestors of modern humans. Had non honing canine, loss of apelike traits, slight increase in brain size.

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A. anamensis

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The oldest (4.4MYA) species of austr. From E. Africa and likely ancestor to A. Afarensis. Found near lake Turkana.

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A. afarensis:

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An early Austr. From E. Africa; brain size similar to modern chimps; thought to be direct human ancestor.

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A. africanus:

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Bipedal but it's brain and canine size are more primitive and ape-like. Dentition is more human-like, intermediate between the pre-A and later Austr.

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A. garhi:

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A late Austr. From E. Africa that was contemporaneous with with A.africanus and A. aethiopicus and likely ancestor to modern Homo lineage.

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Lucy

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Significant fossil with over 40% complete skeleton of an adult female A. afrarensis.

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Robust Australopithecines

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A. Boisei and aethiopicus are considered robust Austr.because of large crania. That had a large sagittal crust, flaring cheek bones and large teeth as a result of a diet likely rich in hard foods.

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A. boisei

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later robust Austr. From E. Africa that was contemporaneous with A. robustus and A. africanus. A. aethiopicus: An early robust Austr. From E. Africa.

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Oldowan

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Stone tool culture associated with H. habilus and possibly A. gahri including primitive/ crude tools formed by pounding flakes away usually from one side only to either cut or pound at something.

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Acheulean

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Associated with H. erectus, including hand axes and other types of stone tools; more refined than Oldowan.

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Handaxe

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The most dominant tool in the Acheulean complex, characterized by a sharp cutting edge for both cutting and scraping.

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Homo habilis

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The earliest Homo species. Showed the first substantial increase in brain size and was the first species definitively associated with the production and use of stone tools.

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Homo erectus

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An early Homo species and the likely descendant of Homo Habilis. The first Hominid species to move out of Africa into Asia and Europe.

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Sagittal keel/crest

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A slight ridge of bone found along the midline sagittal suture of the cranium, which is especially found in H. erectus skulls.

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Narikatome boy

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H. erectus fossil which is one of the most complete ever found. Had a larger brain size of 900cc

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Bodo

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H. erectus fossilized cranium that has cranial features different than other specimens with low brow ridges and thick cranial bones.

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Java man

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One of the first Homo Erectus fossils (top part of cranium and femur) found by Debois on the Indonesian island of java.

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Dmainsi site

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Site located in the country of Georgia where early stone tools were found and more than twenty hominid remains including homo erectus.

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Hunting

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Homo erectus is believed to be one of the first to hunt its food which would have likely resulted from better intelligence and organization.

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Scavenging

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Getting meat from animals that had been previously killed by other animals and may have also been due to them luring the first predator away.

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Gathering

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Primarily sourcing food from grasses, fruits, tubers, vegetables, etc.

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Mousterian

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The stone tool culture in which Neanderthals produced tools using a Levallois technique.

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Levallois

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A distinctive method of stone tool production used during the middle paleolithic, in which the core was prepared and flakes removed from the surface before the final tool was detached from the core.

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Clovis

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Earliest Native American culture of North America; technology known for large, fluted, bifacial stone projectile points used as spear points for big game hunting.

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Paleolithic

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Of, relating to, or denoting the early phase of the Stone Age, lasting about 2.5 million years, when primitive stone implements were used.

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Homo floresiensis

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Nicknamed "Hobbit" for its diminutive size, a possible new species of Homo found in Liang Bua Cave, on the Indonesian island of Flores.

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Neandertal

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An extinct species of human that was widely distributed in ice-age Europe between 120,000-35,000 years ago, with a receding forehead and prominent brow ridges. The Neanderthals were associated with the Mousterian flint industry of the Middle Paleolithic

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Occipital bun

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A cranial feature of Neandertals in which the occipital bone projects substantially from the skull's posterior.

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Archaic v. Modern Homo sapiens

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archaic H. sapiens were more robust, meaning more muscular, thicker enamel, slightly thicker bones, and slightly less cranial capacity.

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Out-of-Africa migration model

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Modern biology, behavior, and culture originated out of Africa. Modern humans spread from Africa ~50,000yBP. Modern humans replaced all populations once living with no gene flow.

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Multiregional Continuity model

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Modern humans evolved from modern earlier archaic populations in their respective regions like Africa, Europe, and Asia. Throughout evolution there has always been significant gene flow on the borders of populations. There is continuity of morphology in all regions of the globe.

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Anthropogenic

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Refers to any effect caused by humans.

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Cribra orbitalia

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Porosity in the eye orbits due to anemia caused by an iron-deficient diet, parasitic infection, or genetic disease.

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Dental caries

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A disease process that creates demineralized area in dental tissues leading to cavities; demineralization is cause by acids produced by bacteria that metabolize carbohydrates in dental plaque.

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Domestication

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The process of converting wild animals/plants into forms that humans care for and cultivate.

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Iron deficiency anemia

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A condition in which the blood has insufficient iron; may be caused by diet, poor iron absorption, parasitic infection, and severe blood loss.

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Masticatory-functional hypothesis

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The hypothesis that craniofacial shape change during the Holocene was related to the consumption of softer food.

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Treponematosis

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Inflammatory response of a bone's outer covering due to bacterial infection or trauma.

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Global warming

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Warming of the Earth's temperatures, today largely due to the effect of burning of fossil fuels and resulting production of greenhouse gases.

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Osteoarthritis

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Degenerative changes of the joints caused by a variety of factors, especially physical activity and mechanical stress.

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Ҫatalhöyük

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One of the earliest agricultural communities in Turkey which eventually grew into a city with a large sedentary population. Houses were close together.

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Neolithic

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The late Pleistocene/ early Holocene culture, during which humans domesticated plants and animals.

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What is a hominid? What are the two obligate characteristics that distinguish a hominid from other primates?

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A hominid is a group of extinct and living bipedal primates of the family Hominidae. Includes all human like beings that postdate the split between the evolutionary lineage that led to chimpanzees and modern humans. The first obligate characteristic is bipedal locomotion since this is hominids primary form of locomotion. The second is non-honing chewing since this dentition is unique to hominids due to the grinding of food rather than primarily slicing food.

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When did the first hominids appear in the fossil record?

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The first hominids appeared in the fossil record during the Miocene 7-6MYA beginning with Sahelanthropos tchadensis

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Why did hominids evolve?

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Possibly due to greater efficiency in different environments enabling hominids to save energy by being bipedal and possibly because food became further dispersed. Having the hands freed may have also been a reason for bipedalism allowing food and children to be carried.

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Who are Louis and Mary Leakey, and what have they contributed to our understanding of early hominids?

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A paleoanthropologist team of fossil hunters. Mary found remains of the robust australopithecine A. boisei (1.75 MYA) which radically altered accepted ideas about the time scale of human evolution. They also found tools and flakes at the site. Louis and Mary's son Jonathan also found the first specimen of Homo habilis, a jaw fragment.

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What is a valgus knee?

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The knees in a bipedal angle inward instead of straight down like a gorillas for instance.

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Name the seven characteristics of a bipedal hominid's skeletal structure

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1. The position of the foramen magnum; in humans it is on the bottom of the skull but on apes it is located on the front of the trunk. 2. The shape of the spine is "S" curved in humans and "C" shaped in primates 3. The shape of the pelvis in humans there is a distinctively short ilium and in apes it is more elongated. 4. The length of the leg hominids its generally longer relative to the arm than in apes. 5. Valgus Knee: The knees angle inward with bipedal species and at a significantly great than 90 degree angle in humans than apes. 6. Bipeds have a longitudinal foot arch serving as a shock absorber whereas apes have fairly flat feet better for grasping. 7. Apes have an opposable big toe but humans do not. Main functions of the feet in humans (e.g. running) and apes (e.g. grasping).

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Name a pre-australopithecine and describe when and where they lived

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Ardi who was from the species Ardipithecus ramidus found in ethopia, had a small skull and a tiny brain with a projecting face. Ardi has primitive limbs. And a wide pelvis of a full hominid since Ardi walked upright. Ardi still likely spent a significant amount of time in trees and possibly lived primarily in the forest.

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Name an australopithecine and describe when and where they lived

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Australapitihicus garhi (2.5MYA) meaning "surprise" due to the tools found near its fossil remains found in Ethiopia. Less arboreal than previous species.

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What is a robust australopithecine? Name one and describe their key features

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A. robustus from South Africa had robust cranial traits of large teeth, large face, and heavy muscle attachments probably for chewing grasses and other low grade vegetation that required a lot of grinding.

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What are the key trends from Australopithecines to early Homo?

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Late australopithecines had a smaller brain size compared to early Homo. The face reduced in size from late Austr. to Homo. And a reduction in the teeth size to homo.

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What characteristics define the genus Homo?

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Tend to have smaller face and jaws with smaller teeth. Have larger brain size and intelligence and bipedal with nonhoning canine.

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What species are the earliest members of the genus Homo?

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Homo habilis is the first members of the genus homo as they had greater intelligence , reliance on tools, different behaviors, and greater dietary flexibility.

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What are the key differences between Homo habilis and Homo erectus?

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The teeth reduces in size from H. habilis to H. erectus. Face and jaws reduced as well. Brain size increased. Brow ridge increased from H habils to H. erectus. Body increased in size.

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What foods were important to early Homo? How did they acquire them?

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Homo likely acquired more meat and protein due to hunting with primitive tools. The social structure helped early Homo to hunt in groups. Eventually H. erectus was able to cook food.

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Who is the first hominid to leave Africa? When did they leave and where is the earliest evidence for their migration found?

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H. erectus was the first hominid to spread across the Old World about 1.8 MYA. Fossils in Dmanisi Georgia dating to 1.8MYA indicate this is where H. erectus likely traveled through to go to Asia and Europe.

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What's the difference between gracile and robust bones?

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Robust vs. Gracile are relative terms, generally of bone proportions with robust tending to be larger and denser than gracile bones.

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Describe the Oldowan tool industry and name the species that used this type of tool.

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The oldest formally recognized stone tool assemblage by making simple flakes struck off unmodified cores began during the Paleolithic period in Africa. Homo habilis as the maker of these tools because they appear in the fossil record about the same time or a little later than the earliest Oldowan tools.

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Describe the Acheulean tool industry and name the species that used this type of tool.

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Toolmaking of Homo erectus and early Homo sapiens; including hand axes and other types of stone tools; more refined than Oldowan. Often both sides of stone were worked over.

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Where is the first evidence of the controlled use of fire? What species may have been the first to use fire? What are the benefits of using fire?

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H. erectus remains found in China in a cave reveal evidence for controlled fire use enabling H. erectus to stay warm, scare of/see predators, and cook food as well.

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Describe the physical and cultural features of Neandertals. (Body and brain size, diet, tool use, burial practices, etc.)

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Neandertals had a more compact body. They had very similar brain size to humans. Their diet was primarily composed of meat. They had a Mousterian tool complex. The often times would bury their dead or drop them in pits. They were a very social species like humans.

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Did Neandertals interbreed with humans?

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The Neandertal genome reveals that between 1% and 4% of Eurasians nuclear dna is shared with Neandertals. Meaning they almost certainly interbred.

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When do Modern Homo sapiens first appear? What are their key characteristics?

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Early modern Homo sapiens first appear ~200,000 yBP in Africa. They have a verticle forehead, high & rounder skull, reduced facial robusticity, smaller teeth, and a 1500cc cranial capacity.

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Describe the three models for explaining the origins for Modern Homo sapeins' origins

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Out-of-Africa migration model- Modern biology, behavior, and culture out of Africa. Modern humans spread to Africa ~50,000yBP. Modern humans replaced all populations once living with no gene flow. Multiregional Continuity model- Modern humans evolved from modern earlier archaic populations in their respective regions like Africa, Europe, and Asia. Throughout evolution there has always been significant gene flow on the borders of populations. There is continuity of morphology in all regions of the globe. Assimilation- Modern humans evolved in Africa first, then spread to Europe and Asia. Once they arrived in Europe and Asia they underwent gene flow with Neadertals.

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Explain how the first humans arrived in Australia and the New World. Include the archaeological evidence for these migrations.

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During late Pleistocene due to cooler tempratures the were land bridges almost all of the way to Australia from Asia. Humans still had to cross ~40 miles of ocean to get there. The earliest archaeological evidence is in Southern Australia.

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When and where did agriculture first develop? What is the first domesticated animal? Name three domesticated plants and when and where they were first domesticated.

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Plant domestication occurred in Southwest Asia less than 12,000yBP with Catalhoyuk being one of the first sites. Corn was first domesticated ~9000yBP in North America. Rice ~8000yBP in Southwest Asia. Wheat ~10,000yBP in the middle east. Dogs 15000yBP.

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Compare the health benefits and drawbacks of an agricultural lifestyle to hunter-gatherers.

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Advantages include support for larger numbers of people, surplus food, and long-term food storage. Disadvantages include land degradation, pollution, conflict for land, loss of wildlife, decline in biodiversity, health problems and disease.

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Medical Anthropology

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Medical anthropology is an interdisciplinary field which studies "human health and disease, health care systems, and biocultural adaptation".

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Forensic Anthropology

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Anthropology in a legal setting -- most often physical anthropology in criminal cases,A forensic physical anthropologist can assist in the identification of deceased individuals whose remains are decomposed, burned, mutilated or otherwise unrecognizable.

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Bioarchaeology

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The scientific study of human remains from archaeological sites

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Maya civilization

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anthropologists studying the origins of the Maya have been divided into two camps. Some believe that the Maya civilization developed in Guatemala and Belize, without any contact from other groups in the region. But others believed the Maya were an outgrowth of the advanced Olmec civilization on the Gulf Coast.

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Paleodiet

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AKA hunter-gatherer diet, is a modern nutritional plan based on the presumed ancient diet of wild plants and animals that various hominid species habitually consumed during the Paleolithic era—a period of about 2.5 million years which ended around 10,000 years ago with the development of agriculture and grain-based diets.

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Pelvis

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a bony structure near the base of the spine to which the legs are attached.

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Cranium

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the bones that surrounds the brain case; the skull excluding the mandible and hyoid bones.

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Mandible

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the lower jaw.

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Vertebrae

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backbone

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Scapula

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[syn. shoulder blade] a flat triangular bone that articulates laterally with the proximal humorous.

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Clavicle

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collarbone.

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Sternum

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Also known as the breast bone, the sternum is a flat, narrow bone in the center of a person's chest that connects with the ribs

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Humorous

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upper arm bone.

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Radius

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the lateral (outer) bone of the lower arm.

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Ulna

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The thinner and longer of the two bones in the human forearm, on the side opposite to the thumb.

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Carpals

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Any of the eight small bones forming the wrist.

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Phalanges

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the bones of the fingers and toes

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Femur

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the thigh bone.

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Tibia

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The inner and typically larger of the two bones between the knee and the ankle

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Fibula

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lateral (outer) bone of the lower leg.

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Patella

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kneecap.

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Calcaneus

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heel bone.

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Tarsals

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located in the mid-foot and rear-foot areas.

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