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Ad Hominem

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Latin for "against the man," this fallacy refers to the specific diversionary tactic of switching the argument from the issue at hand to the character of the other speaker.

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Appeal to False Authority

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This fallacy occurs when someone who has no expertise to speak on an issue is cited as a respected reference.

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Argument

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A process of reasoned inquiry; a persuasive discourse resulting in a coherent and considered movement from a claim to a conclusion.

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Backing

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In the Toulmin model, this consists of further assurances or data without which the assumption lacks authority.

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Bandwagon Appeal (Ad Populum)

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This fallacy occurs when evidence boils down to "everybody's doing it, so it must be a good thing to do."

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Begging the Question

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A fallacy in which a claim is based on evidence or support that is in doubt.

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Circular Reasoning

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A fallacy in which the writer repeats the claim as a way to provide evidence.

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Claim

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Also called an assertion or a proposition, this states the argument's main idea or position. It differs from a topic or subject in that a claim has to be arguable.

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Claim of Fact

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This asserts that something is true or not true.

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Claim of Policy

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This proposes a change.

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Claim of Value

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This argues that something is good or bad, right or wrong.

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The Classical Oration

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Five-part argument structure used by classical rhetoricians. The five parts are: introduction, narration, confirmation, refutation, and conclusion.

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The Classical Oration: Introduction (exordium)

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tells the reader what is under discussion.

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The Classical Oration: Narration (narratio)

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Provides factual information and background material on the subject at hand or establishes why the subject is a problem that needs addressing.

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The Classical Oration: Confirmation (confirmatio)

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Usually the major part of the text, this includes the proof needed to make the writer's case.

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The Classical Oration: Refutation (refutatio)

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Addresses the counterargument . It is a bridge between the writer's proof and conclusion.

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The Classical Oration: Conclusion (peroratio)

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Brings the essay to a satisfying close.

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Closed Thesis

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A statement of the main idea of the argument that also previews the major points the writer intends to make.

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Deduction

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The logical process whereby one reaches a conclusion by starting with a general principle or universal truth (a major premise( and applying it to a specific case (a minor premise).

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False Dilemma (Either/or)

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A fallacy in which the speaker presents two extreme options as the only possible choices.

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Faulty Analogy

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Occurs when two things that are not comparable are compared.

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First-Hand Evidence

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Based on something the writer knows, whether it's from personal experience, observations, or general knowledge of events.

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Hasty Generalization

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A fallacy in which a faulty conclusion is reached because of inadequate evidence.

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Induction

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The writer reasons from particular universals, using specific cases in order to draw a conclusion, which is also called a generalization.

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Logical Fallacy

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Potential vulnerabilities or weaknesses in an argument. They often arise from a failure to make a logical connection between the claim and the evidence used to support it.

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Open Thesis

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This does not list all the points the writer intends to cover in an essay.

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Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc

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This fallacy is Latin for "after which therefore because of which," meaning that it is incorrect to always claim that something is a cause just because it happened earlier. One may loosely summarize this fallacy by saying that correlation does not imply causation.

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Qualifier

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In the Toulmin model, this uses words like usually, probably, maybe, in most cases, and most likely to temper the claim, making it less absolute.

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Quantitative Evidence

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Includes things that can be measured, cited, counted, or otherwise represented in numbers; for instance, statistics, survey, polls, and census information.

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Rebuttal

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In the Toulmin model, it gives voice to possible objections.

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Reservation

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In the Toulmin, it explains the terms and conditions necessitated by the qualifier.

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Rogerian Arguments

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Based on the assumption that having a full understand of an opposing position is essential to responding to it persuasively and refuting it in a way that is accommodating rather than alienating.

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Second-Hand Evidence

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This is accessed through research, reading, and investigation. It includes factual and historical information, expert opinion, and quantitative data.

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Straw Man

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A fallacy that occurs when a speaker chooses a deliberately poor or oversimplified example in order to ridicule and refute an idea.

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Syllogism

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A logical that uses the major premise and minor premise to reach a necessary conclusion. Often used in the process of deduction.

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Toulmin Model

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An approach to analyzing and constructing arguments: Because (evidence as support), therefore (claim), since (warrant or assumption), on account of (backing), unless (reservation).

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Warrant (Assumption)

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In the Toulmin model, this expresses the assumption necessarily shared by the speaker and the audience.

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Amy Domini

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Author of "Why Investing in Fast Food May Be a Good Thing," a ROGERIAN ARGUMENT that uses statistics that demonstrate a tendency for fast food restaurants to improve their environmental impact. This type of argument reaches across divisive assumptions to reach compromising solutions.

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Roger Ebert

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Author of "Star Wars," a review of soon after its appearance. Ebert makes a CLAIM OF VALUE, all the while sharpening his definition of what makes the film so engaging. Ultimately, he claims that the hero's journey format is what makes the movie so engaging. This type of claim argues for quality.

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Anna Quindlen

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Author of "from The C Word in the Hallways," an argument that is based on a CLAIM OF POLICY, that we should eradicate the shame that comes with mental illness. She uses anecdotal evidence for support.

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New York Times Editorial Board

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"Felons and the Right to Vote" authors. CLAIMS OF FACT, VALUE, and POLICY are embedded in this argument that uses quantitative and other factual evidence to suggest that ex-felons ought to be allowed to vote.

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Max Shulman

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Author of "Love is a Fallacy," a short story that details several logical fallacies. In the story, the narrator attempts to woo Polly Epsy, a graceful beauty who, in the narrator's estimation, lacks intellectual prowess, using a series of lessons on fallacies. Epsy ultimately finds fallacies in all of the narrator's arguments that she ought to date him.

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Jennifer Oladipo

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Author of "Why Can't Environmentalism Be Colorblind?", she uses personal experience to argue that environmental causes can and should market to minorities.

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Fabiola Santiago

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Author of "In College, These American Citizens Are Not Created Equal," Santiago uses anecdote to create an emotionally-charged argument against discrimination in college tuition.

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Fareed Zakaria

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Author of "When Will We Learn?", Zakaria uses current events. Staying abreast of what powerful policy-makers and worldwide pacesetters are doing helps when making arguments. He uses the examples of Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak as well as quantifiable evidence in his argument that our public education system ought to be improved.

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Samuel Walker

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Author of the paragraph from . He "provides HISTORICAL INFORMATION to establish the 'intolerance' of the 1920's era." (105)

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Dana Thomas

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She wrote "Terror's Purse Strings" using each type of evidence along the way. She argues the claim of policy that consumers ought to ban counterfeit knock-off handbags and garments because of the black market ties to terrorism.

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Sandra Day O'Conor and Roy Romer

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Authors of "Not by Math Alone." This argument uses the structure of classical oration to argue for a civics class in school.

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Malcolm Gladwell

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He wrote The excerpt in the book makes an INDUCTIVE argument about how children who grow up learning in Asian languages have an advantage in math.

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Thomas Jefferson

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He wrote The Declaration of Independence, an argument that mixes DEDUCTION with INDUCTION, giving premises that rely on evidence.

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Elizabeth Cady Stanton

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She wrote The Declaration of Sentiments, an argument modeled after The Declaration of Independence. It demands equal treatment of women from the U.S. government.

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polyp.org.uk

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The authors of this website published the cartoon "Rat Race." It uses visual rhetoric to argue the fallacy of "happiness" that is created by consumerism.

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Alfred Stieglitz

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He made the photograph "The Steerage." His visual rhetoric uses contrast and symbolism to deliver the claim that the American Dream's possibilities of upward mobility is unequally distributed.

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